Bible Subjects

This celebrated city, in some respects the connecting link between the two Testaments, was founded by Alexander the Great, 332 B.C. Its situation was skilfully planned, being on the southern shore of the Mediterranean, and contiguous to the Red Sea and the Nile, and thus commanding the trade of the eastern and western worlds. Alexandria soon became a city of very great commercial importance, and attracted the trade which had made Tyre so famous; while during the dynasty of the Ptolemies it attained not only a degree of splendour rivalling most of the cities of antiquity, but became the center of the intellectual power of these centuries.

The pride of Assyria had been humbled in the total destruction of her powerful city Nineveh, so that her very site remained a matter of conjecture to the historians of the ancient world. Babylon in turn shared the fate of her rival, and bowed her neck beneath the iron heel of the conquering Persian. Tyre, that famous stronghold on the eastern side of the Great Sea, and emporium of the world’s wealth, after defying the combined sea and land forces of Alexander for seven months, had just fallen before the superior strategy and perseverance of the great Grecian commander, and her immense wealth taken to swell the already heavy and accumulated treasures of the conqueror. Then arose Alexandria, bearing the name of her founder, and soon towered above all her compeers in point of commercial importance, and as a center from whence emanated the intellectual and religious life of the world. Its population in the day of its greatness numbered about 600,000 souls. Its present population is estimated at about 5,696,000.

“Alexandria was a league and a half long, by one third in breadth, which made the circumference of its walls about four leagues. Lake Marcotis bathed its walls on the south, and the Mediterranean on the north. It was intersected lengthwise by straight parallel streets. This direction left a free passage to the northern wind, which alone conveys coolness and salubrity into Egypt. A street of 2000 feet wide, began at the gate of the sea and terminated at the gate of Canopus. It was decorated with magnificent houses, temples, and public buildings. In this extensive range, the eye never tired with admiring the marble, the porphyry, and obelisks, which were destined at some future day to embellish Rome and Constantinople. This street, the handsomest in the universe, was intersected by another of the same breadth, which formed a square at their junction of half a league in circumference. From the middle of this great place, the two gates were to be seen at once; and vessels arriving under full sail from the north and from the south.”

Even in a later age, when Rome became the mistress of the world, Alexandria maintained her high reputation as a seat of learning, for here flourished Origen, Clement, and other distinguished men during the first six Christian centuries, and if the description furnished by the Arabian conqueror of Alexandria in the seventh century be correct, it could not have been much behind Rome itself for size and splendour. Amrou wrote to his master the caliph in these words — ”I have taken the city of the west. It is of an immense extent. I cannot describe to you how many wonders it contains. There are 4,000 palaces, 4,000 baths, 12,000 dealers in fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 theatres and places of amusement.” It was then that the splendid and famous library of 700,000 volumes was delivered to the flames. For six months they continued to fire the numerous baths with which the city abounded; thus perished the library of the ancient world, and that by the express order of the ignorant Saracen Omar, who regarded the Koran as sufficient for the intellectual and religious life of mankind.

But what makes Alexandria so very interesting to the Bible student is not its former grandeur or greatness, nor even its New Testament references, important as these are. Here the eloquent Apollos was born (Acts 18:24), and its famous shipping supplied Paul and his companions with a vessel to carry them to Rome (Acts 27:6). But in our judgment Alexandria is justly celebrated as being the birthplace of the Septuagint, or Greek version of the Old Testament, and which gave, not only to the many thousands of Jews who found a home and a refuge in Egypt from the cruelty and tyranny of the Syrian kings, the Sacred Scriptures in the Greek tongue, then almost universally spoken, but supplied for nearly three centuries before Christ, and for a considerable time after, the Old Testament complete as presently possessed by us, and that, too, in the tongue of the learned and ignorant. It was this version of the Scriptures which was in constant use during the time of our Lord, and from which He made numerous quotations, and which the Bereans searched to verify the statements of Paul (Acts 17). Not only did Alexandria, under the Ptolemies for nearly 300 years, rise in wealth, grandeur, and learning, but under their auspices the Septuagint, or Alexandrian version of the Old Testament, was commenced 284 B.C. and afterward finished; so that after the completion of the Old Testament, and the ceasing of the prophetic ministry, God caused His Word to be translated, circulated, and known far beyond the bounds of Judaism. It is not, too, without its importance that Philo, a learned Jewish author and philosopher, and who, according to many, improved upon the philosophy of Plato, flourished in Alexandria in the early part of the first Christian century, and whose corroborative testimony to the truth of Holy Scripture from such a source, is not without value. Singular that Josephus, a Palestinian Jew and historian, and Philo, an Alexandrian Jew and philosopher, both contemporary, and both unbelievers, living about 400 miles apart, yet held the Septuagint to be of Divine authority, besides furnishing other testimonies to the historical veracity of the facts of Scripture history. And certainly these men, from their position and capabilities of knowing and testing the truth for themselves, were in a position to do so vastly superior to the unbelieving critics of our day, who dare to impugn the living and inspired oracles of our God.

Animals

That interesting department of natural history — zoology, thus classifies the animal kingdom: first, land mammalia; second, birds or all kinds of flying fowl; third, reptiles or creeping things; fourth, fishes; and fifth, invertebrates. These distributions of animal life are, of course, most useful when scientific accuracy is required; but to a general reader and for all practical purposes the Scripture classification is amply sufficient as, first, marine creatures; second, winged and flying fowl; and third, land animals. We have the seas, then heaven or the air, and lastly the land respectively stocked with life (Gen. 1:20-25). This is the order too observable in modern geological research.

The learned scientists of our proud and highly educated nineteenth century are wont to discharge their intellectual shafts at the credulity and ignorance displayed by the author of the book of Genesis. “This ancient document,” say they, “was good enough for a rude and barbarous age, for the world in its infancy; but the Pentateuch has served its purpose, and we can easily afford to lay it aside as a book possessing not the slightest authority, but we will revere it because of its high antiquity, for it is hoary with age. Science has shown that the cosmogony of Moses is altogether out of date and quite irreconcilable with the clear deductions of modern light upon creation and its wonders.” Now, we strongly object to the statement that science corroborates the Word of God, nay, it is that word which confirms and seals the certain and carefully ascertained facts and conclusions of science, and adds a luster to these studies when taken up in the fear of God, which is the beginning of wisdom. We will put two or three plain statements before our readers, frankly avowing that our knowledge of the sciences is extremely limited, but our faith in the Word of God supreme: it liveth forever while we are but creatures of a day. First, has one fact been produced from the realm of nature which contradicts any statement in the Word of God, and if so, Where? and When? We await the proof. Second, is it not a fact that in all, or nearly all, departments of physical science mistakes have been made, and that succeeding investigators have corrected the ignorance and rebuked the assumptions of their predecessors? Third, has it not been repeatedly demonstrated that the Bible account of creation is not merely in substantial accord with established facts, but in numerous points circumstantially confirms the teachings of science, and which till late years were held to be contradictory? We will adduce two or three examples. How could light exist apart from the sun? Science, however, on the principle of electricity, has established the fact, but it was in the Bible; yes, and in the much abused book of Genesis thousands of years before this was known. The Christian believed it because on the first day God caused the light to be, and on the fourth set the sun in the solar system. He needs not the voice of science to establish the supreme authority of Holy Scripture. The “Book of Stone” has informed the geologist as to the order and ascending scale of animal life, but the Christian can triumphantly point to the Mosaic record of creation and show it written there thousands of years before geology ever had a votary. Ethnology has been pleased to say that it has satisfactorily established the unity of the race, and further, that the human family as now divided can be resolved into three great branches. How much better to have believed in the unity and dignity of the race from the second chapter of Genesis and in the three great divisions of mankind from the tenth chapter of that same book. When will men learn to be somewhat more cautious and careful in their assertions; a little modesty, after being proved to have been wrong so often, might surely befit these men of science. Of this we are fully assured from our gleanings in the writings of the school-men that the Scripture adage, “knowledge puffeth up,” is abundantly witnessed in the rash assumptions and unbelieving attacks made upon a document inspired and written by Divine authority 3500 years ago. Some of the brightest intellects which have ever entered the temple of science have cheerfully paid court and homage to the Word of God. Scripture, of course, is independent of man; it never borrows light, but it adds a lustre to its students, and it is right and becoming that its pre-eminent dignity be duly acknowledged.

The animal creation is further divided into clean and unclean (Lev. 11 and Deut. 14); the former being for sacrifice and for food, while the latter is regarded as unfit for either. In these ceremonial enactments Jehovah had a much higher object in view than the simple regulation of His people’s food. There was a moral end in these instructions. God was teaching His people holiness, and although as Christians we are not under these legal requirements, the spirit of them should be cultivated. “Whether therefore, ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God” (1 Cor. 10:31).

Of clean land animals there must be the ability to chew the cud, and walk with cloven foot; the hoof must be divided. These two inseparable and distinguishing marks were essential. The camel, coney and hare, might possess one of these qualifications, but they were pronounced “unclean,” because they lacked the other (Lev. 11:3-7). Again, all marine creatures having fins and scales, thus possessing the ability to swim, were “clean,” and could be freely used by a ceremonially holy people (Lev. 11:9-12). All carnivorous and nocturnal birds were amongst the prohibited class (Lev. 11:13-19). Reptiles and creeping things in general were also unclean and an abomination (Lev. 11:20-42), but the various kinds of locust who “leaped” along the ground, neither crawling nor creeping, were allowed for food.

In the following compendium of animal creation will be found embraced all, or nearly so, of every living creature named in the Scriptures, and are arranged in strict alphabetical order. Amongst the birds it will be observed that those of prey predominate. There is also a considerable variety of small birds who inhabit Israel not named at all. The oft-recurring expression “after his kind” (Lev. 11) intimate a species, and not specialty. Of fishes, none are named although as a class often referred to in the sacred pages and the distinction between clean and unclean accurately pointed out. The waters of Israel abound in fishes, the Dead Sea excepted. By-and-by, however, its waters will be healed, and teem with fish in all variety, affording constant occupation to the fisherman on its shores (Ezek. 47).

Apostles' Labors -Traditional Account

Hippolytus, who died about A.D. 230, gives an account of where the apostles laboured and where they died.

Peter preached the gospel in Pontus and Galatia, and Cappadocia and Betania (Bithynia), and Italy and Asia; he was afterward crucified by Nero in Rome, with his head downward, as he had desired.

Andrew preached to the Scythians and Thracians, and was crucified at Patrae (a town) of Achaia.

John was banished by Domitian, the emperor, to the isle of Patmos, in which he also wrote his Gospel, and saw the Apocalyptic vision; and in Trajan’s time he fell asleep at Ephesus.

James his brother, when preaching in Judaea, was cut off with the sword by Herod the Tetrarch.

Philip preached in Phrygia, and was crucified in Hierapolis, with his head downward, in the time of Domitian, and was buried there.

Bartholomew (preached) to the Indians, to whom also he gave the Gospel according to Matthew: he was crucified with his head downward, and was buried in Allanum (or Albanum) of the Great Armenia.

Matthew wrote the gospel in the Hebrew tongue, and published it at Jerusalem, and fell asleep at Hierees (a town) of Parthia. As to Matthew having written his gospel in Hebrews, see ‘the book of Matthew, briefly considered.’

Thomas preached to the Parthians, Medes, Persians, Hyrcanians, Bactrians, and Margians (or Magis), and was thrust through in the four members of his body with a pine spear, at Calamene (or Caramene), a city of India.

James, the Son of Alphaeus, when preaching in Jerusalem, was stoned to death by the Jews.

Judas, who is also Lebbaeus, preached to the people of Edessa, and to all Mesopotamia, and fell asleep at Berytus.

Simon the Zealot, the son of Clopas, who is also (called) Judas, became bishop of Jerusalem after James the Just, and fell asleep at the age of 120 years.

Matthias, one of the seventy, was numbered with the apostles, preached in Jerusalem, and fell asleep there.

Paul entered into the apostleship a year after the ascension of Christ, and beginning at Jerusalem, he advanced as far as Illyricum, and Italy and Spain, preaching the gospel for five-and-thirty years. One year after the ascension is not correct, even if the crucifixion and ascension is fixed as late as A. D 33; Paul was converted about A. D. 36: see Chronological Tables of Events. And in the time of Nero he was beheaded at Rome, and was buried there.

Of James the Lord’s brother, Hegesippus (2nd century) relates that he was highly esteemed at Jerusalem, and the scribes and Pharisees came to him and said, “We pray thee stop the people, for they have gone astray after Jesus, as though he were the Christ. We pray thee to persuade all that come to the Passover concerning Jesus.” So they set him at the gable of the temple, that all might hear him; and calling to him said, “O just one, to whom we ought to give heed, seeing that the people are going astray after Jesus who was crucified, tell us what is the door to Jesus.” He answered with a loud voice, “Why ask ye me about Jesus the Son of Man? He sits in heaven on the right hand of great power, and will come in the clouds of heaven.” Many were convinced, and gave glory on the testimony of James, crying out, “Hosanna to the Son of David.” This enraged the rulers, and he was thrown down and stoned, while he, like his Lord, prayed for his enemies.

Josephus also states that James was stoned, but says it was under the charge of breaking the laws. Both accounts may be true: his testimony being the cause of his death, and the accusation of breaking the laws, the plea raised.

As to James, the son of Alphaeus, and James the Lord’s brother being the same person, as is thought by some, {see James.}

Apostolic Fathers and Their Writings

This title is given to those writers who lived in the days of the apostles, and with whom they had, as one may well suppose, more or less intercourse.

Clement

He is supposed to be the Christian mentioned by Paul in Philippians 4:3. Eusebius (4th century) says he was “the friend of St. Paul.” Little is known of Clement: some say he was bishop of Rome. He is said to have lived to the third year of Trajan (A.D. 100), and then to have suffered martyrdom.

Eusebius says that Clement wrote a “great and admirable” Epistle to the Corinthians. There are, indeed, two epistles attributed to him, but the second is now not believed to be genuine. In the first epistle the Corinthians are warned of their disorders and strife, and earnest appeals are made to their heart and conscience. Fabulous stories are introduced, such as that of the phoenix, from the ashes of which a new bird arises. This is called a fact, and a wonderful figure of the resurrection! Very strange interpretations are also given to some parts of the Old Testament. A copy of this Epistle forms a part of the Codex Alexandrinus, and it is recorded that it was in early days read in the church!

Polycarp

He is said to have been bishop of Smyrna, and to have been intimate with the apostle John. Irenaeus says of Polycarp: “I have yet present in my mind the gravity of his demeanour, the majesty of his countenance, the purity of his life, and the holiness of the exhortation with which he fed his flock. I almost think that I can still hear him relating how he had conversed with St. John, and many others who had seen Jesus Christ, and repeating the words he had received from their lips, and the accounts they had given him of the Saviour’s miracles and doctrines; while his zeal for the purity of the faith was such that when any error was advocated in his presence, he was wont to close his ears and to retire, exclaiming, Merciful Lord, for what times hast thou reserved me!”

On persecution breaking out, under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, Polycarp was induced to retire to a country house a short distance from Smyrna; but an attendant under torture revealed his seclusion. On the arrival of the officers he set provisions before them, and asked for an hour for prayer, but which extended to two. He was placed on an ass because of his great age. Before the proconsul he was exhorted to submit. “Swear, and I will release you; curse Christ,” was said to him.

But he replied, “Eighty and six years have I served Him, and He has never injured me. How can I blaspheme Him to whom I owe my salvation?” The proconsul, finding he could not induce him to recant, declared that Polycarp had confessed himself a Christian. The crowd called for his death, choosing at first that it should be by wild beasts. But as it was not the time of the year for the shows, he was sentenced to be burnt. The crowd, among whom, says the historian, were many Jews, hastily gathered fuel, and all was soon ready. He said they need not fasten him to the stake. He who enabled him to endure the fire would enable him to stand firm. On the pile being ignited the flames rose rapidly, but it is said they formed a circle around the martyr without burning him, his body having the appearance of shining gold and silver, while a sweet smell as of perfume filled the air. The people clamoured for his death, and he was killed by the sword; but his blood running freely put out the fire. Lest a superstitious use should be made of his body it was consumed, and a few charred bones was all that remained. The above is the account quoted by Eusebius, from an epistle considered to be genuine. Polycarp died A.D. 166.

Polycarp wrote an Epistle to the Philippians. It is mostly exhortative, and has many parts apparently copied from the Apostolic writings. One is sorry to find that in one place he quotes from the Apocrypha, “When you can do good, defer it not, because ‘alms deliver from death’.” (Tobit.)

Barnabas

There is an Epistle bearing the name of Barnabas. It was said by Clement of Alexandria (who died about A.D. 213) to be by “Barnabas, the companion of Paul”; but this is not generally believed. It was read in the churches, but Eusebius called it “spurious.” One MS. entitles it, “Epistle of Barnabas the Apostle.” It is not known who is the writer, nor to whom the Epistle is addressed. Some of the interpretations of Scripture are foolish in the extreme, and in several places it quotes as Scripture, passages which cannot be found therein.

Ignatius

This Father is called Bishop of Antioch. He lived in the reign of Trajan. The Emperor in A.D. 106 was passing through Antioch on his way to the Parthian war, and Ignatius, fearing for the Christians in the city, appeared before the Emperor in the hopes of saving them. A curious conversation passed between them respecting having God in the heart. The Emperor cut it short by proclaiming, “since Ignatius confesses he carries within himself Him that was crucified we command that he be carried, bound by soldiers, to great Rome, there to be torn by wild beasts, for the entertainment of the people.” He was at once bound, and sent to Rome. On his way he stayed at Smyrna, and saw Polycarp. He wrote letters or epistles to various churches. In the one to Rome he begged them not to endeavour to stay his execution. “Suffer me,” said he, “to become the food of bears and lions: it will afford a very short passage to heaven.”

As he approached Rome a crowd of Christians met him begging him to let them intercede for him, but he refused. He was allowed to have a short time for prayer, and to give a short address to those gathered, after which he was taken to the amphitheatre. The wild and hungry animals soon closed his career here. A few bones were all that the disciples could find of his remains.

There are several epistles bearing the name of Ignatius: (1.) to the Ephesians; (2.) to the Magnesians; (3.) to the Trallians; (4.) to the Romans; (5.) to the Philadelphians; (6.) to the Smyrnaeans; (7.) an epistle to Polycarp. Of these there are shorter and longer copies, and of Nos. 1, 4, and 7 Syriac copies have been discovered, differing more or less from either the long or the short. This shows how shamefully the writings of the early Christians had been tampered with, and makes it impossible to know now what was originally written. There is nothing striking in these epistles, except the way in which Ignatius speaks of the bishops, deacons, etc. such as: “We ought to look upon the bishop as the Lord Himself.” (To the Ephesians, 6.) “Let us all reverence the deacons as Jesus Christ, and the bishop as the Father; and the presbyters as the sanhedrim of God and college of the apostles. Without these there is no church.” (To the Trallians, 3.) But, as we have said, it is difficult to know whether Ignatius really wrote these things.

Hermas

Supposed to be the Hermas mentioned by Paul in Romans 16:14. Nothing appears to be known of this Father, except that he is the author of a treatise called “The Shepherd.” It was highly esteemed in the early church, and thought by many to be inspired, and was read in the churches. Irenaeus quotes it as Scripture; Clement of Alexandria and Origen call it “divine.” It is a sort of allegory, and has often been compared to Bunyan’s ‘Pilgrim’s Progress’; but it is far inferior to that work. Some of it is foolish, and parts of it are scarcely decent.

Papias

This Father, according to Irenaeus and Eusebius, was Bishop of the Church in Hierapolis, a city of Phrygia. Later writers say that he suffered martyrdom about A.D. 163. He is said to have been a hearer of the apostle John, and had conversed with many who had known the Lord and His apostles. He wrote a treatise in five books, but only fragments of his writings remain. He seems to have collected together floating traditions respecting the Lord. Eusebius says of him that he had set down “things as coming to him from unwritten tradition, amongst these some strange parables and instructions of the Saviour, and some other things of a more fabulous nature. Amongst these he says that there will be a millennium after the resurrection from the dead, when the personal reign of Christ will be established on this earth.” It is to be hoped that Eusebius did not treat this as a fable.

Writer of the Epistle to Diognetus

Who the writer of this Epistle was is not known, neither is it known who Diognetus was. It is placed among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, and is supposed to be of early date. The author calls himself “a disciple of the apostles,” and speaks of Christianity as a new thing in the world. It is an eloquent epistle, and is perhaps the best of all these early writings. It was written to Diognetus because he was “exceedingly desirous of learning the mode of worshipping God prevalent among the Christians, and inquiring very carefully and earnestly concerning them.” It treats of the Vanity of Idols; Superstition of the Jews; the Manners of the Christians; the relation of Christians to the world; the manifestation of Christ, etc. Christians, he says, live “in the flesh, but they do not live after the flesh. They pass their days on earth, but they are citizens of heaven. They obey the prescribed laws, and at the same time surpass the laws by their lives.” Of Christ, he says, God did not send an angel or ruler, but “the very Creator and Fashioner of all things.” He says, “God Himself took on Him the burden of our iniquities; He gave His own Son as a ransom for us, the Holy One for transgressors.”

With the exception of this last-named Epistle, it is surprising how little spirituality there is in the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, except where they quote from the Scripture itself. In all the oldest MSS. of the New Testament which give the Revelation, one or more of the above is added at the end, and these are said to have been read in the churches as well as the true epistles. It is no doubt well that there should be a decided break between the sacred writings, which were inspired by God to form a part of Holy Scripture, and the writings that immediately followed. The difference is indeed so marked, that while the Church of Rome retains the apocryphal books of the Old Testament, none are so irreverent as to include any of the writings of the Fathers in the New Testament canon. God has thus watched over and preserved His own Word.

Besides the before-mentioned writings, there are a number of apocryphal writings, for the most part unquestionably not written by the persons whose names they bear. There are about a score of different ‘Gospels,’ a dozen ‘Acts,’ several ‘Epistles,’ and four or five ‘Revelations.’

Apparent Discrepancies

We have already seen, in considering the gospels, that each gospel had a special aspect, or object, and that the Lord is exhibited in each in a particular character, as Son of David, the Messiah; as the faithful servant; as the Son of Man; and as the Son of God. If this is once grasped, it removes a number of apparent discrepancies, and the differences are seen to be designed, and to be beauties instead of faults.

It is also to be remembered that there were many other things which Jesus did that are not recorded by John (21:25); and who could have made the selection as to what was to be written but God Himself? Surely He did this for each of the evangelists.

We may well suppose that our Lord, as He travelled about Israel, had different audiences, and related the same parable and delivered similar discourses more than once; so that what has been considered as one and the same thing may have happened on different occasions. Similar cures also were wrought in different places. If feeding the five thousand had been named in two or three of the gospels, and feeding the four thousand had been in another, many would have declared it a grave error of the writer, and would have said how unlikely that two miracles so similar should have occurred. Believing that the Scriptures are divinely inspired helps wonderfully to clear up difficulties.

It must also be remembered that in reporting a statement, the actual words used may be given, or the sense only of what was said. Such is constantly done by everyone.

In examining the following apparent discrepancies we can only give what may have happened, without professing that it must have been as here stated; but if it can be shown how events may have occurred so as to meet a difficulty — that difficulty may be said to be met.

The Visit of the Wise Men

From Matthew 2:1-23 it would appear that at or near the birth of Jesus was the visit of the wise men at Bethlehem, and that it was followed by the flight into Egypt, and the return into Galilee. In Luke 2:22-39 the circumcision and presentation follow the birth, and then they return to Galilee. In Matthew there seems no room for the presentation; and in Luke no room for the visit of the wise men.

In the first place, let it be noticed that Matthew 2:1 does not say that the wise men came when Jesus was born: it should read, “Jesus having been born,” leaving the time indefinite. In Luke there is the birth, circumcision, and presentation, which would all occur in about forty days, from whence the holy family, as it is called, returned to their own city, Nazareth in Galilee. It is easy to suppose that they subsequently paid a visit to Bethlehem, ordered of God, so that the wise men might find them there, after which the flight into Egypt would follow. We know that the parents of our Lord visited Jerusalem yearly at the Passover (Luke 2:41), and, being at Jerusalem at the Passover following the birth, it was easy for them to reach Bethlehem. This would perhaps be only about three months after the birth, but Herod may have settled on killing the children from two years old by reckoning when the star first appeared, and leaving a large margin, so as to secure his victim, as he thought.

The Census Under Cyrenius

Luke 2:2

This does not seem to agree with the historians, who place the census under Cyrenius nine or ten years after the birth of Christ.

This is called a “taxing” in the above passage, but it was most probably an enrolment or census. If carried out by the Romans, it might seem strange that Joseph had to go to his own city to be enrolled; but, knowing the exceeding jealousy of the Jews, the governor may have tried to do it in a way the least objectionable to them.

Various suggestions have been made to solve the above difficulty, but Professor Zumpt believes he has discovered the true key to it in that Publius Sulpicius Quirinus (the Cyrenius of Scripture) was twice governor of Syria, and twice made a census, and that in Luke refers to his first governorship (B.C. 4 to B.C. 1), when he was succeeded by Lollius. (A summary of Zumpt’s arguments may be seen in Wiesler’s “Chronological Synopsis of the Four Gospels,” translated by Venables.)

In support of the above, it may be remarked that Justin Martyr three times asserts that our Lord was born under Quirinus, and appeals to some register as proof of it. (Apol, i. 34, 46; Dial. 78.)

The Knowledge John the Baptist had of Jesus

In Matthew 3:14, when the Lord came to be baptized of John, we read that “John forbad Him, saying, I have need to be baptized of Thee, and comest Thou to me?” But in John 1:31 John says, “I knew Him not.”

It is evident that John had some knowledge of Jesus, they were relatives, and he had doubtless heard of what had been announced to the shepherds at His birth, and also of the inquiries of the wise men, etc.; quite enough to lead him, under the teaching of the Holy Spirit, to believe that Jesus was the Messiah, and to say to Him, “I have need to be baptized of Thee, and comest Thou to me?” But in John’s Gospel our Lord is portrayed as Son of God, and as such the Baptist did not know Him, though he was to know Him thus by the Holy Spirit abiding on Him. By this he was taught that which this evangelist brings out, for he says, “I saw, and bare record that this is the Son of God.”

Abiathar the High Priest

Mark 2:26

Said to clash with 1 Samuel 21:1-6, where Ahimelech was the priest.

The passage in Mark does not really say that the event took place in the high priesthood of Abiathar, but is more indefinite (with ἐπί only, the words “the days of” being added), and may mean “in [the presence of],” or with the sanction of Abiathar, who may have been present with his father when the shewbread was given to David. It was really done in the days of Abiathar, who afterward became high priest. This removes all difficulty. If the Lord had said Ahimelech, His enemies might have said, “Ah, but the priest was slain for his irregularity”; whereas Abiathar lived and reigned with David.

The Blind Men at Jericho

Matt. 20:29-34; Mark 10:46-52; Luke 18:35-43

Matthew speaks of two blind men, Mark and Luke of only one. Luke represents the miracle as performed when Jesus was approaching Jericho, before He entered it; Matthew and Mark, as when He was leaving Jericho.

This difficulty may be met in several ways. Let us suppose that as our Lord approached Jericho He healed the blind man, as reported by Luke. At the entrance of a city seems a very suitable place for a beggar to sit; but the city had two entrances, and why should not beggars sit at the entrance towards Jerusalem as well as at the other? Here there were two beggars, Bartimaeus being one, who may have been well known, and he only is named by Mark, though both were brought to the Lord at the same time. Matthew mentions the two. If our Lord remained at Jericho the night with Zacchaeus, as some suppose, the curing of the blind man as the Lord entered the city would soon have become known, and others would naturally have been at the gate on the following morning. There may have been three cured, or even more. Luke 18:35 means “when He was in the neighborhood of Jericho.”

Christ Riding Upon an Ass

Matt. 21:2-7; Mark 11:2-7; Luke 19:30-35; John 12:14-15

It is objected that Matthew represents that there were two animals, a she-ass and a colt, and apparently that Christ rode on them both; whereas the other three gospels speak of only the colt.

The act was a fulfilment of the prophecy in Zechariah 9:9, which reads, “Behold, thy King cometh unto thee: He is just, and having salvation; lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass.” In Matthew it does not say that Christ rode upon both animals: garments were placed on both (and we can easily believe that more garments were readily offered on that joyous occasion than were needed for one), and Christ sat on them (the garments). John, who mentions only the colt, also speaks of its being a fulfilment of the same prophecy. The she-ass, which was with the colt, not being used, was not named by the other evangelists.

Mary Anointing the Lord

Matt. 26:6-13; Mark 14:3-9; John 12:1-9

1. It is objected that this, according to John, took place six days before the Passover; but in Matthew and Mark not more than two days.

2. In John it is apparently in the house of Martha and Mary; but in Matthew and Mark it is in the house of Simon, a leper.

3. According to John, it was the feet that were anointed; in Matthew and Mark it is the head.

4. Matthew and Mark say that the disciples complained of the waste; John speaks of Judas only.

As to 1, the occurrence was most probably two days before the Passover, which agrees with Mark being the most strictly chronological; in John it does not say that it was six days before the Passover. Our Lord came to Bethany on that day; but the supper may have been when the other evangelists place it.

2. Let us suppose that the house belonged to Simon the leper, and the others lodged with him. In John it does not say whose house it was, or Martha may have been Simon’s wife or widow.

3. The anointing may have been both of the head and the feet.

4. Judas may have been the chief and first complainer, and the others were led to join him.

The Last Passover

Matt. 26:17-19; Mark 14:12-16; Luke 22:7-13; John 13:1-2

The question presented here is, Did our Lord eat the Passover on the same day as the Jews? for when He was led to the hall of judgment, the rulers went not in to the judgment-hall, lest they should be defiled; but “that they might eat the Passover” (John 18:28). And the same day is said to be “the preparation of the Passover” (ch. 19:14). Thus the account in John’s gospel does not seem to agree with the other gospels.

This difficulty has been sought to be removed in different ways.

(1.) That our Lord partook of the Passover a day before the Jews; and it has been thought that John 13:1-2, confirms this by the words, “before the feast of the Passover. ... and supper being ended.” But this is not satisfactory, for the other gospels say that our Lord did not partake of the Passover till the first day of unleavened bread had come. Mark adds that the day was “when they killed the Passover,” and Luke “when the Passover must be killed.” Both Matthew and Mark show that when the right day had come the disciples asked where they should prepare the Passover. John 13:1 may simply mean “before eating the Passover.” Besides, the paschal lambs had to be slain at the sanctuary (Deut. 16:5-6): would the priests have sanctioned this on any other day? We must search for a better explanation than this.

(2.) It has been supposed that our Lord partook of the Passover at the usual time, but that the rulers had been so occupied with arresting and trying our Lord that they had neglected to eat the paschal lamb, and would do it the next evening. This is possible, but it is hardly probable that they would so gravely break the law; and this would not remove the difficulty of John 19:14, which speaks of the day being “the preparation of the Passover.”

(3.) If it is clear from the first three gospels that our Lord ate the Passover on the appointed day, how are the statements in the Gospel of John to be understood? It must be observed that though the lamb was eaten in one night, the paschal feast lasted seven days and that on the 15th Nizan there were the universal free-will offerings. For the feast bullocks were offered, and these were also called the Passover: thus in Deuteronomy 16:2 we read, “Thou shalt therefore sacrifice the Passover unto the Lord thy God, of the flock and of the herd, in the place which the Lord shall choose to place His name there.” (See also 2 Chron. 35:6-14.) So that when the rulers said they would not be defiled that they might eat the Passover, they may have meant that they might go on keeping the feast. Lightfoot judges that their language implies that they had eaten the Passover, for their defilement would have lasted only to sunset, and then they would have been clean. The term “the preparation of the Passover” may mean the preparation of the Passover offerings or the paschal sabbath. The name for Friday was Παρασκευή “preparation day,” and it is so used in John 19:31.

(4.) Others believe that there is testimony that at the time of our Lord there were two recognized (or rather allowed) times for eating the Passover, namely, one at the beginning of the 14th Nizan, and the other at the close of the same day, and each may have been adopted by one of the two great sects. This would at once remove the difficulty, if Matthew and Mark referred to when our Lord ate the Passover at the beginning of the day, and John to when the rulers intended to eat it at the end of the day.

By our Lord eating the Passover on the evening of the 14th Nizan (at the beginning of the day) He also suffered on the same day, in the morning. This has led some to suppose that the injunction to kill the Passover “between the two evenings” (Ex. 12:6 margin) embraces 24 hours. But none of it was to be left till the morning, so that the expression cannot mean this. Besides, the daily evening lamb was also to be killed between the two evenings, and the same expression is used for lighting the evening lamps (Ex. 29:39; 30:8). The Jews are not agreed as to what is meant by “between the two evenings.” Some say it refers to the time when the sun begins to decline, perhaps from three o’clock to sunset; others refer it to the time between sunset and darkness.

Judas Present at the Lord’s Supper

Matt. 26:21; Mark 14:18; Luke 22:21

The pointing out Judas as the betrayer appears in Matthew and Mark to be before the Lord’s supper; but in Luke it is placed after it.

It is clear that all the accounts cannot be chronologically arranged. The account in John 13 helps to clear up the question. When our Lord had spoken of being betrayed, He was asked in a low voice by John, who was nearest, to whom He referred. He said to John (not to all) that it was the one to whom He would give a sop. He gave the sop to Judas, and it is added, “He then having received the sop went immediately out: and it was night” (verse 30). Now the sop, or morsel, had reference to the paschal supper, and Judas went out immediately after receiving it. He could not therefore have been present at the Lord’s supper. Luke has placed the incidents in moral succession; chapter 22:19-20, should be read as in a parenthesis, intercalated in the midst of what refers to the Passover feast.

The Prophecy of Jeremy

Matt. 27:9-10

This is not found in Jeremiah, but something similar is found in Zechariah 11:12-13. Did Matthew, then, make a mistake?

There is no proof of any mistake. We cannot suppose that all the prophecies of each prophet are recorded; and here it is what Jeremiah spoke, and not what he had written. Jeremiah may have spoken it, and Zechariah committed it to writing. It is also recorded by the Jewish writers that anciently Jeremiah was placed first in the Book of the Prophets: thus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and the twelve minor prophets. Thus Jeremiah may have been a sort of heading for the whole. Zechariah, though quoted, is never named in the New Testament.

The End of Judas

In Matthew 27:5 we read that Judas cast down the pieces of silver in the temple, “and went and hanged himself.” In Acts 1:18 it is said, “This man purchased a field with the reward of iniquity; and falling headlong, he burst asunder in the midst, and all his bowels gushed out.”

He may have hanged himself on some high tree, and then by the rope or the branch of the tree breaking, he fell down and was dashed to pieces. Matthew merely relates the remorse and suicide of Judas; Luke, the end of the tragedy. Acts 1:18 says he purchased a field, which means no more than that he was the cause of a field being purchased, and this would agree with the chief priests buying the potter’s field (Matt. 27:6-8) and with Zechariah 11:12-13. He did it as it were by proxy, the priests did it for him with his money.

The Denials by Peter

All the evangelists agree in recording a threefold denial by Peter, but it is alleged that the accounts differ in,

1, That the first three gospels say that the denials took place in the palace of Caiaphas; whereas John says they were in the house of Annas.

2, That some of the accounts say that Peter was standing; others, that he was sitting.

3, That those who accuse Peter are not the same in the different accounts.

Those who bring forth the first as a discrepancy, dispute the translation of John 18:24 as in the Authorized Version: “Annas had sent him bound to Caiaphas the high priest,” and say our Lord was sent to Caiaphas after the denials. There is no doubt that it may be translated “sent” or “had sent.” But verse 19 says, “The high priest then asked Jesus of His disciples”; and Caiaphas, not Annas, was high priest (verse 13). Others suppose that Annas and Caiaphas resided in the same palace, so that the denials may be said to be in the house of either. As to the other points, it must be remembered that there were a number of people together in the said hall or porch, and it is probable that more than one person spoke at each of the denials. What Peter actually said may have been more than is recorded, for we read that he began to curse and to swear. It may be that he actually denied oftener than three times, but three denials are recorded, as giving full testimony to Peter’s weakness. So that all the accounts are doubtless strictly accurate.

Bearing the Cross of Jesus

In John 19:17 we read: “He bearing His cross went forth.” In the other gospels it is said they compelled one Simon a Cyrenian to bear the cross of our Lord.

It was usual to compel the condemned to bear their own cross, and our Lord went forth bearing His cross, but for some reason Simon was compelled to carry it the rest of the way.

The Drink Given to Our Lord

In Matthew 27:34 it is vinegar mingled with gall, but in Mark 15:23 it is wine mingled with myrrh.

The “vinegar” and “wine” may well mean the same. It was the common sour wine that the Roman soldiers drank. The word for “gall” is χολή, and may have been used by Matthew to signify something bitter without meaning to specify what it was. The word is used in the LXX. in Deuteronomy 32:32, “Their grapes are grapes of gall, their clusters are bitter”; in Proverbs 5:4 and Jeremiah 9:15 it is used for “wormwood.” Therefore while Mark names the article mingled with the wine, Matthew indefinitely refers to it as something bitter. It was usual to give such a mixture to criminals to stupefy them: but our Lord would not drink it. The above passages have been thought to clash with Psalm 69:21, where our Lord says, “They gave Me also gall for My meat; and in My thirst they gave Me vinegar to drink,” as representing their ill-treatment of Him, whereas the above, and also the vinegar given when our Lord said “I thirst” (John 19:28) were offered Him with no ill-feeling, but rather the reverse. But there is another passage that has often been overlooked (Luke 23:36) where vinegar was offered to Him by the soldiers in mockery, and which exactly agrees with the Psalm, and gall may also have been given to Him out of hatred, though it is not recorded in the gospels.

The Hour of the Crucifixion

In John 19:14 the trial of our Lord is represented as still going on at about the sixth hour; whereas in Mark 15:25 we read “it was the third hour, and they crucified Him.” And both Mark (15:33) and Luke (23:44) speak of there being darkness over the land from the sixth to the ninth hour, and this was after our Lord had been on the cross some time.

There can be little doubt that John used the Roman mode of reckoning the hours, commencing at midnight, and that the sixth hour refers to our six o’clock a.m.; and this agrees with all other references as to time. The council met “as soon as it was day” (Luke 22:66); and it was “early” when Jesus was brought before Pilate (John 18:28). The trial was proceeding at our six o’clock a.m. and the crucifixion would be at nine o’clock a.m. For the other instances in John see {Seasons and Divisions of the Year.}

Three Days and Three Nights

Matt. 12:40; Mark 8:31

Our Lord was really in the tomb two nights and parts of three days. By a common mode of reckoning among the Jews, a part of a day was always counted as a day, so that the above would be called by them “three days.” The “three nights” may seem a greater difficulty, but the Greeks used a compound term for “day and night” in one word (νυχθήμερον), and though this word is not actually employed by the evangelists, the same may be embraced, and any period covering parts of three days may be called three days and three nights. Reference may be made to Esther 4:16, where Esther tells the Jews to “neither eat nor drink three days, night or day,” which may well be taken to mean three days and three nights; but in chapter 5:1, the end of the fasting was on the third day, which could have included only two nights and three days. In Mark it is “after three days.” But with the Jews this meant the same thing, as may be seen by the Jews saying to Pilate that Jesus had said that He would rise “after three days,” but they did not request a watch for four days, but simply “till the third day.”

The Inscription on the Cross

Matt. 27:37; Mark 15:26; Luke 23:38; John 19:19

The inscriptions are said not to agree. The words are not exactly the same in the four Gospels.

The inscription was written in three languages, and may not have been exactly the same in the three; and if they were, the evangelists may not have intended to give all the words, but the substance of the inscription only. They stand thus:

	Jesus of Nazareth the King of the Jews.	JOHN
	This is Jesus the King of the Jews	MATTHEW
	the King of the Jews.	MARK
	This is the King of the Jews.	LUKE

Notice also that Matthew calls it “His accusation”; Mark “the superscription of His accusation” and Luke “superscription”; and John “a title.”

Events Connected with the Resurrection

Various discrepancies are said to be in the accounts respecting the resurrection in the several gospels, such as differences in the times mentioned when the women visited the sepulchre; the number and names of the women; the appearance of the angel or angels; and as to whom Christ first appeared.

It is well to notice that in some places “women” are mentioned without saying who they were, and it is perhaps best not to attempt to say who they were: we can easily suppose that there was more than one party that visited the sepulchre. Some we know were from Galilee (Matt. 27:55; Luke 23:49,55).

The events probably followed somewhat thus: Mary Magdalene and the other Mary (of Joses) saw where the body was laid (Matt. 27:61; Mark 15:47; Luke 23:55). Some women returned, and prepared spices on Friday evening (Luke 23:56). Mary Magdalene, and the other Mary at the close of the sabbath (Saturday evening) come to observe the sepulchre (Matt. 28:1), and return and finish their preparations, buying sweet spices (Mark 16:1). Early on Sunday morning is the resurrection, the earthquake, and the removal of the stone. While yet dark, Mary Magdalene came to the sepulchre, and ran and told Peter and John that the body of the Lord had been taken away (John 20:1-2). Very early women enter the sepulchre. They are told by angels that the Lord is risen, and they are sent to tell the apostles (Matt. 28:5-7), disconnected from verse 1; (Mark 16:1-7; Luke 24:1-10). Peter and John go to the sepulchre (Luke 24:12; John 20:3-10). Mary followed them, and stayed at the sepulchre: two angels appear and speak to her. Jesus makes Himself known to her first, and she is sent with a message to His “brethren” (John 20:11-18; Mark 16:9-11). She is not allowed to touch Him. Jesus meets other women, who hold Him by the feet and worship Him (Matt. 28:9). The varied visits to the tomb are just what might be expected, when the news was brought that the tomb was empty. The words of Mary, “They have taken away my Lord, and I know not where they have laid Him,” may have been the devout thought of many.

Stephen’s Address

Various discrepancies are said to exist in Stephen’s address, and some Christians are content to say that, while, no doubt, Luke gave an accurate report, Scripture does not say that Stephen was inspired. It does not; but it does say that, in his addresses to the Jews, they were not able to resist the wisdom and the spirit with which he spake (Acts 6:10), and twice is it said that he was full of the Holy Spirit, and his face was as the face of an angel. Besides, there was the special promise of God that, when His disciples should be brought before rulers, the Holy Spirit should teach them what they should say; yea, the Spirit should speak in them (Matt. 10:19; Mark 13:11; Luke 12:11). We must believe, therefore, that Stephen made no mistakes. Let us examine those that are alleged.

(1.) That Abraham received his call in Mesopotamia (Acts 7:2); but in Genesis 12:1, he received it at Haran.

It does not say in Genesis that the call was in Haran: but that the Lord had said to Abraham, Get thee out of thy country; and several passages declare that God brought Abraham out of Ur of the Chaldees (Gen. 15:7, etc.). It appears that Abraham started to obey the Lord, but stopped short with his father in Haran till his father died. In fact, it was Terah and not Abram who was leader of the expedition (Gen. 11:31).

(2.) When his Father was Dead. — This is said to be inconsistent with Genesis 11:26,32; 12:4. “Terah lived seventy years, and begat Abram, Nahor, and Haran.” Terah lived to the age of two hundred and five years. Abram left Haran when he was seventy-five. If Abram was Terah’s first-born, 70 + 75 = 145, not 205 years.

It is not said that Abram was Terah’s first-born: he may have been named first because of his importance. The three sons would not have been born in one year — the year named. Terah might have been 130 when Abram was born, but this would have been an old age, for Abram thought it extraordinary he should have his son Isaac when he was 99. But still, Isaac married Rebecca, the grand-daughter of Nahor, by the youngest son of eight (Gen. 22:22). There is another explanation. Abram was told to leave not only his country, but his kindred and his father’s house; and Genesis 12:4 may mean that he left Haran for a time only, without entirely breaking away from his father’s house until his death, though we do not read of any return to Haran.

(3.) Four Hundred Years (Acts 7:6). This is said to contradict Genesis 15:13.

This period applies to the beginning of the verse as well as the end, that is, to the sojourn and to the bondage. It was spoken to Abraham as to his seed (Gen. 15:13), and if we start from the birth of Isaac it stands thus: —

	From birth of Isaac to birth of Jacob	60 years
	From birth of Jacob to birth of Joseph	90
	To Joseph’s death	110
	To birth of Moses	60
	To the Exodus	80
		400 years.

(4.) Seventy-five Souls (Acts 7:14). — Said to clash with Genesis 46:27, which says “seventy.”

In verse 14 it is, “Jacob ... and all his kindred, three score and fifteen souls.” The number given being not what Joseph called into Egypt, but “Jacob and all his kindred,” and this would include the descendants of Joseph born in Egypt before the Exodus. (See Num. 26:28-37; 1 Chron. 7:14-20.) In Gen. 46:26 it is, those that “came with Jacob into Egypt” including his sons’ wives, 70 souls, which does not include those born in Egypt after Jacob came. In the LXX. it reads, “But the sons of Joseph who were with him in Egypt, were nine souls: all the souls of the house of Jacob which came with Jacob into Egypt were seventy-five souls.” That is, nine are added to the 66 of verse 26, making in all 75 souls.

(5.) Abraham’s Sepulchre at Sychem (Acts 7:16) and who were buried there. — Said to clash with Genesis, in that —

(a.) Jacob was not buried in Sychem, but at Machpelah.

Verse 16 does not say that Jacob was buried at Sychem, but that the “fathers” were. Joseph was buried at Sychem, and doubtless others. Stephen was addressing an audience that was familiar with Old Testament history, and did not stop to give any of the detail but what was needed for his arguments.

(b.) That the sepulchre at Sychem was not bought by Abraham, but by Jacob of sons of Hamor, the father of Shechem (Gen. 33:19; Josh. 24:32).

The first of these passages does not say that the ground was bought for a sepulchre (though Joseph was afterward buried there), but a place for Jacob to pitch his tent in, and where he could erect an altar. Now, if Jacob did this, why not Abraham also, for he also came to Sychem and built an altar there? This is the more probable, because “the Canaanite was then in the land” (Gen. 12:6-7). If this was so, as there was a long period between Abraham and Jacob, the Emmor of the Acts must have been a different person from the Hamor of Genesis.

Bengel paraphrases the passage thus: “Jacob died and our fathers (namely Joseph): and (because, after the example of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca, they wished to rest in the land of promise [Gen. 50:13,25] for this reason) they were carried over into Sychem or Shechem (and into the sepulchre of Hebron [Gen. 23:19]) and were laid (in “the parcel of ground” at Shechem [Josh. 24:32] and) in the sepulchre (of Hebron), which Abraham had bought (and Jacob) for a price in money (and a hundred lambs) from the sons of Emmor (the father), of Sychem or Shechem (and from Ephron).” He believes that two well-known histories are intertwined, the audience of Stephen knowing well what was meant. “The brevity which was best suited to the ardour of the Spirit gave Stephen just occasion, in the case of a fact so well known, to compress these details in the way he has done.”

(6.) Beyond Babylon (Acts 7:43). — In Amos 5:27, it is “beyond Damascus.” This is judged to have been an error of Stephen’s.

Stephen does not say that he is quoting Amos; but is thus free to quote from any of the prophets what was said concerning the captivity referred to. In 2 Chronicles 36:20 and Jeremiah 20:4, Babylon is named. Babylon must have fallen with great weight on the ears of his audience, who would naturally have expected to have heard the word Damascus. It is worthy of note too, that the same word (μετοικζω) is used in verse 4 for Abraham’s removing from Chaldea, as is used in verse 43 for their being carried away beyond Babylon.

Four Hundred and Fifty Years

Acts 13:20

The time of the Judges clashes with 1 Kings 6:1, which gives 480 years from the Exodus to the fourth year of Solomon’s reign.

Most editors transpose the sentence in the Acts, and then it reads, “He divided to them their lot, about four hundred and fifty years; and afterward he gave them judges.” This removes the difficulty.

The Number Which Died of The Plague

1 Cor. 10:8

This is said to clash with Numbers 25:9.

In Corinthians it says, the twenty-three thousand died in one day: in Numbers, it is died of the plague in total.

To have a firm confidence in the inspiration of the Scripture is a wonderful help to surmount any difficulties that may arise in reading the Word. Those who do not believe in plenary inspiration are apt to declare every apparent discrepancy to be an error, and therefore irreconcilable: whereas a believer in inspiration banishes the thought of there being errors, and returns again and again to a difficulty, and looks to God for wisdom to solve it; and if we are willing to be taught, He graciously giveth wisdom liberally, and upbraideth not.

Babylon

The Chaldean kingdom, the oldest on record, of which Babylon was the capital, lay between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, and was about 400 miles in length and about 100 in breadth.

Babylon was undoubtedly the grandest city ever built by man. “Of all the seats of empire — of all the cities that the pride or power of man has built on the surface of the globe — Babylon was the greatest. Its greatness, as it was originated so, in large measure was secured by its natural position. Its founders took advantage of the huge spur of tertiary rock, which projects itself from the long inclined plain of the Syrian desert into the alluvial basin of Mesopotamia, thus furnishing a dry and solid platform on which a flourishing city might rest, whilst it was defended on the south by the vast morass or lake, if not estuary, extending in that remote period from the Persian Gulf. On this vantage-ground it stood, exactly crossing the line of traffic between the Mediterranean coast and the Iranian mountains; just, also, on that point where the Euphrates, sinking into a deep bed, changes from a vast expanse into a navigable river, not wider than the Thames at London; where also out of the deep rich alluvial clay it was easy to dig the bricks, which from its earliest date came floating down the rivers from the springs in its upper course.”

The founder of Babylon was Nimrod, also the founder of the Assyrian monarchy (Gen. 10), and the original strength of both kingdoms consisted of four cities each (Gen. 10:10-12). Babylon, the first and ancient of all cities, occupies a large place in the Word of God, and is there viewed as the representative of man in his pride, glory, power, and idolatry, and we might add wickedness. It was out of Egypt that Israel was redeemed, but it was into Babylon the people were sent for their sins; they were slaves in the one and captives in the other. The historical connection of Babylon with the national history of Israel, and of the mystical city with the professing church (Rev. 17; 18), are subjects of very great importance, the former of which is largely developed in the Old Testament Scriptures. “The times of the Gentiles” took their rise from the downfall of Judah and the ascendancy of Babylon. Soon all that now represents Babylon historically and figuratively, which is ever viewed as the dominant power on the earth, acting in proud independence of and in opposition to God and His people, will crumble into dust: “For the Lord will have mercy on Jacob, and will yet choose Israel, and set them in their own land: and the strangers shall be joined with them, and they shall cleave to the house of Jacob. And the people shall take them, and bring them to their place: and the house of Israel shall possess them in the land of the Lord for servants and handmaids: and they shall take them captives, whose captives they were; and they shall rule over their oppressors. And it shall come to pass in the day that the Lord shall give thee rest from thy sorrow, and from thy fear, and from the hard bondage wherein thou wast made to serve, that thou shalt take up this proverb against the king of Babylon, and say, How hath the oppressor ceased! the golden city ceased! The Lord hath broken the staff of the wicked, and the sceptre of the rulers” (Isaiah 14:1-5). Thus restored, Israel in the day of her gladness, celebrates the doom of Babylon. The mystical city is no less doomed to full and final judgment, and the church thus celebrates the event: “Alleluia; Salvation, and glory, and honour, and power, unto the Lord our God: for true and righteous are His judgments: for He hath judged the great whore, which did corrupt the earth with her fornication, and hath avenged the blood of His servants at her hand. And again they said, Alleluia. And her smoke rose up for ever and ever” (Rev. 19:1-3).

Babylon was founded by Nimrod in self-will and independence of God; the love of power and conquest characterized its sad origin, and stamped their features on its after history. All this culminated in Nebuchadnezzar, “the head of gold,” who, proudly surveying the magnificent city, exclaimed, “Is not this great Babylon, that I have built for the house of the kingdom by the might of my power, and for the honour of my majesty” (Dan. 4:30). Alas! Alas! God has doomed all flesh, and the glory of man to wither as the grass. When the star of Israel sank behind the clouds of wickedness and idolatry, there arose in splendour the day star — Lucifer (Isa. 14), and on the ruins of Judah and Jerusalem — Babylon the “golden city.” When the church ceased to be a reflector of Christ’s glory and God’s grace in this dark scene, then the mystical Babylon arose surely on a ruined corporate testimony, but Israel will rise and shine, and Babylon will sink to rise no more, and the church in the glory of God (Rev. 21), will shine through the everlasting ages of a bright millennial and eternal day — a day without an evening, while the false and corrupting system — the mystical Babylon will sink into gloom and darkness, settled and eternal — a night which will never know a morning.

Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar attained its highest degree of splendor and magnificence, of size and strength. For long it was a mere city of no great pretension, and belonged to the Assyrian empire, of which Nineveh was the capital. But the Babylonians, aided by the Medes, threw off the yoke of Assyria, and reduced Nineveh almost to ashes. Rapidly the new and vigorous kingdom spread her wings, and extended her power over the known kingdoms of the east. Egypt, her southern rival, was completely overthrown, followed by the subjugation of Judah. Then, on the destruction of Jerusalem, the Divine center of earthly government, Babylon found her power all victorious, and an absolute monarchy founded on the plains of Shinar. Herodotus, the earliest historian extant, and who saw Babylon soon after the zenith of her glory, gives a glowing description of the size and magnificence of the city and her buildings. There has been considerable discussion in reference to some of the details, especially as to the height and breadth of the city walls. Probably the description Herodotus gives may be somewhat exaggerated, but certainly Scripture, which is always reliable, and history, which in a measure may be depended upon, would warrant us in saying that Babylon must have been the grandest and largest city built or witnessed by man; to be exceeded in magnificence surely by the future Jerusalem, the metropolitan city of the millennial earth; as the Temple of Belus, in Babylon (said to have been the grandest structure of the kind ever erected) will as certainly be as nothing compared to the New Temple in Jerusalem, which will be built according to Divine plan and measurement.

Babylon stood in a large plain, and formed a square of about fifty-six miles. The Euphrates flowed through the center of the city from north to south, spanned by a wonderfully built bridge, on one side of which stood the magnificent Temple of Belus, of enormous dimensions, containing numerous images of pure gold, and which was plundered by the famous Xerxes; and on the other side of the bridge stood the grand palace of Nebuchadnezzar — the largest and most magnificent, probably, ever built. The hanging gardens, one of “the seven wonders of the world,” were truly wonderful as a work of art. They were constructed as terraces, and rose to the height of the walls. Every kind of fruit, flower tree, and vegetable, were grown to perfection in these gardens, and must have immensely delighted Nebuchadnezzar’s Median Consort Amyte, on whose account they were built, in order to remind her of her own country’s beautiful gardens and forests. The walls of the city are said to have been about 335 feet high, and about 87 feet broad, thus allowing abundant space for chariots to run on the top of the walls, and even to turn at any point they choose. There were also 100 gates of solid brass, and enormously strong, twenty-five on each side of the city, besides numerous other gates inside, and all of brass and of great strength. From each gate to the other opposite there was a straight street the whole length or breadth of the city, these in turn were intersected, until, in all, there were formed 676 squares.

The capture of the city by Cyrus is detailed at length in the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah. The ancient historians who so graphically and circumstantially describe the overthrow of Babylon — the “praise of the whole earth” — are not more minute, and certainly neither so exact nor reliable as the Hebrew prophets already named. The cities Babylon and Nineveh — the respective capitals of the Chaldean and Assyrian monarchies — are doomed in the prophetic word to perpetual desolation.

How blessed, beloved reader, to turn from the wreck and ruin of human greatness, to that which cannot be moved; “let us have grace, whereby we may serve God acceptably with reverence and godly fear.”

Names of the Country and City

The desert of the sea.

The land of the Chaldeans.

The land of Shinar.

The land of Merathaim.

The land of Babylon.

The most proud.

Praise of the whole earth.

Sheshach.

The lady of kingdoms.

The golden city.

The city of merchants.

Babylon the great.

The glory of kingdoms.

The beauty of the Chaldees’ excellency

Its Location

On the rivers Tigris and Euphrates.

Its People

Were numerous.

Were idolaters.

Were wealthy.

Were cruel.

Were superstitious.

Were warlike.

Were commercial.

The City

Was large.

Was strongly fortified.

Was utterly destroyed.

Babylon – Jehovah’s Instrument of Judgment

Upon Egypt.

Upon Judah.

Upon Edom.

Upon Moab.

Upon Ammon.

Upon Tyre.

Upon Zidon.

Upon Assyria.

Upon Hazor.

Upon Nineveh.

The Babylon of the Apocalypse occupies the same relation to the Babylon of the prophets, as does the New Jerusalem to the Jerusalem of the prophets. In the Revelation, both cities are used in a mystical sense; in the prophets, the cities are to be understood in their literal import. The prophets Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Ezekiel are remarkably definite in their statements upon Babylon and her relation to Judea.

Bible Notes

Some Totals

Total number of books in the Old Testament – 39

Total number of chapters in the Old Testament – 929

Total number of books in the New Testament – 27

Total number of chapters in the New Testament – 260

Total number of verses in the Old Testament – 23,145

Total number of verses in the New Testament – 7,959

The shortest book in the Old Testament is Obadiah.

The shortest chapter in the Old Testament is Esther 10.

Some Firsts

The first mention of believing in the Old Testament is in Genesis 15:6.

The first historical notice of idolatry is in Joshua 24:2.

The first person in Scripture termed a “Hebrew” is Abram (Gen. 14:13).

The first altar spoken of is Noah’s (Gen. 8:20).

The first polygamist was Lamech (Gen. 4:19).

The first worker for salvation was Cain (Gen. 4).

The first city builder and murderer was Cain (Gen. 4).

The first conqueror and hunter was Nimrod (Gen. 10:8-11).

The first recorded instance of a son dying before his father is noted in Genesis 11:28.

The first recorded instance of a daughter being born is noted in Genesis 4.

The first general confederacy amongst men is recorded in Genesis 11:1-6.

For the first time the Hebrews are termed Jews; see 2 Kings 16:6.

The first mention of Assyria after the days of Nimrod, is noted in 2 Kings 15:19.

The first, second, and third kings of all Israel each reigned the probationary period of 40 years.

The first notice of the Rainbow — token of Divine goodness — is in Genesis 9.

Some Titles

Abimelech was a common title of a race of Philistine kings.

Pharaoh was the royal designation of the Egyptian monarchs.

Antiochus was the royal title borne by the kings of the North, or of Syria.

Ptolemy was the royal title of the kings of the South, or of Egypt.

Caesar was the title borne by the first Roman emperors.

Guide Books

The priests’ guide book was Leviticus.

The Levites’ guide book was Numbers.

The peoples’ guide book was Deuteronomy.

Life Spans

Human life has been shortened by about a half, several times; thus the longest lived person after the flood — Heber — lived 464 years, a little less than half Methuselah’s age, 969 years, the longest lived person before or since the flood; the longest lived person after the dispersion at Babel — Reu lived 239 years, a little more than half Heber’s age. In the wilderness, life was again shortened to about half of the age of Abram (Psa. 90:10): the blessed Lord was cut off in “midst” or half of His days, as a man (Psa. 102:24).

Contemporary Lives

Seth, third son of Adam, in whom the line of grace was continued, was contemporary with all the antediluvian fathers, except Noah.

Methuselah was contemporary with Adam for more than 200 years, and with Noah for about 600 years.

Enoch, who walked with God, was contemporary with Adam for about 300 years, and with Noah for some time, and thus the truth and revelation of God then revealed, was handed down for 1656 years.

Called to be Perfect

Patriarchs were called upon to walk before God and be perfect (Gen. 17:1)

Israel was to be perfect with the Lord thy God (Deut. 18:13)

Christians are to be perfect, as their Father in heaven is perfect (Matt. 5:48).

Miscellaneous Notes

The moral condition of Israel to the first coming of the Lord in grace is given in the book of Malachi.

Old Testament history is comprised in sixteen books — from Genesis till Nehemiah — the first and last historical books of the Old Testament.

The following prophets prophesied after the restoration from the captivity: — Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

The following prophets prophesied during the captivity: — Daniel in the royal court of the conquerors; Ezekiel amongst the captives at the river of Chebar; and Jeremiah amongst the poor of the people left in the land.

There were ten fathers before the flood, and ten fathers after the flood, till Abram.

Christ suffered at man’s hands as a martyr for righteousness; hence judgment is the result (Psa. 69).

Christ suffered at God’s hands as a victim for sin; hence grace to man is the blessed fruit (Psa. 22).

The last five verses of Psalm 40 — the prayer of the suffering Messiah — forms Psalm 70, the prayer of the future remnant of Judah.

“There is no peace, saith the Lord, unto the wicked,” is the concluding words of Jehovah’s expostulation with His people, because of their idolatry (Isa. 40-48). “There is no peace, saith my God, to the wicked,” is the concluding words of God’s expostulation with the people, because of their rejection of the Messiah (Isa. 49-57).

Scripture furnishes no account of the birth or death of any of Cain’s posterity, but simply records their doings (Gen. 4).

Four cities originally constituted the strength of the Babylonian kingdom (Gen. 10:10), and four cities the strength of the Assyrian kingdom (Gen. 10:11-12).

The first four chapters of Lamentations, Proverbs 31:10-31, and Psalms 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119 and 145, are acrostics founded on the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet.

Raguel, Reuel, Jethro, are various names given to Moses’ father-in-law.

The sovereignty of God in election cannot be questioned, for the Word of God is full of it from Genesis to Revelation. Jacob instead of Esau, Isaac instead of Ishmael, Shem instead of Japheth, Seth instead of Cain, Arphaxad instead of Elam, Ephraim instead of Manasseh, Joseph instead of Reuben, royalty in the fourth son of Jacob, and priesthood in the third, are all witnesses of the sovereign elective purposes of God.

The subject of Isaiah chapter 53 commences with verse 13 of chapter 52.

The Jews have been successively ruled over by the Babylonians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Egyptians, the Syrians, and the Romans.

Both Phinehas and Aaron were set in the priesthood, the latter by the choice of Jehovah (Lev. 8), the former by earning his title to it (Num. 25).

We have no mention of rain during the first sixteen and a half centuries of the world’s history (Gen. 7:4); the ground was watered by a mist which went up from the earth (Gen. 2:6).

The first recorded instance of Egypt invading Judah is in the reign of Rehoboam. The temple and palace were plundered of their wealth; but Jerusalem itself and the country were spared for a time (1 Kings 14; 2 Chron. 12).

Blessings of Moses

Deuteronomy 33

The blessings of Moses, the man of God, are governmental in character, and not prophetic as Jacob’s. Thus the notable point of difference between the predictions of Jacob and Moses is, that the former gives a brief but very complete sketch of Israel’s history from her establishment as a nation till her full blessing under her Messiah. Moses, on the contrary, and in keeping with the character of the book of Deuteronomy, looks at the tribes entering the land and continuing therein in relationship to God, on the ground of obedience. Their place in Canaan, under the government of God, blessed when they did well, punished when they sinned, is in the main the subject of the blessings which in their range and bearing are much more narrow and circumscribed than those of Jacob’s. The order of the tribes is different here from that noted in Genesis 49.

Reuben

“Let Reuben live, and not die; and let (omit ‘not’) his men be few.” (Deut.33:6) It might have been expected that Reuben, being the eldest of the twelve sons, would have had a numbering somewhat more in keeping with his position (Num. 1:21), but instead of being the largest of the tribes, he was amongst the smallest, and after the conquest of Canaan was ever reckoned with Gad and half-tribe of Manasseh. Reuben, although small in numbers, was continued as a tribe, but never figured prominently in the land. The prediction was exactly fulfilled.

Judah

“And this is the blessing of Judah: and he said, Hear, Lord, the voice of Judah, and bring him unto his people: let his hands be sufficient for him; and be Thou an help to him from his enemies.” (Deut. 33:7) The birth-right of Reuben, the eldest, was transferred to Joseph (1 Chron. 5:1), but power or authority, which generally accompanied the birth-right, went to Judah. Jehovah specially identifies Himself with this tribe and with Judah too as a nation. It was of this tribe of whom Christ came according to the flesh. “Bring him unto his people,” no doubt refers to the future union of the now broken sticks, “beauty” and “bands” — Judah and Israel (Zech. 11:7-14; Ezek. 37:15-22). This is one of the few yet future prophetic announcements contained in these predictions. “The voice of Judah” is heard again and again in the prayers, songs, and prophecies of David, Asa, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, Daniel, and others of the royal tribe. “Be Thou an help to him from his enemies” is witnessed in the signal and remarkable deliverances vouchsafed to Judah, as a tribe and as a nation.

Levi

Here Simeon is omitted, and the brotherhood existing between him and Levi spoken of by Jacob (Gen. 49) broken up. (Deut. 33:8-11). Levi is blest with priesthood, service, and teaching, so that the scattering and dispersion of this tribe throughout the land, while in the first instance one of judgment, was yet used of God for the good and blessing of His people.

Benjamin

“The beloved of the Lord shall dwell in safety by Him; and the Lord shall cover him all the day long, and he shall dwell between His shoulders.” (Deut. 33:12). Jehovah established His throne and sanctuary in Jerusalem; from the one He governed the people in righteousness, in the other He dwelt in their midst in grace; and, as Jerusalem was within the territory assigned to Benjamin, this beautiful prayer expressed, in words most touching and tender, Jehovah’s special place in midst of the tribe. What an honour, what a blessing was conferred upon Benjamin — the living God dwelling in her midst!

Joseph

The heavens and earth yield their treasures in rich and full abundance, and center on the head of Joseph. (Deut. 33:13-17). Glory, too, is his, and strength reaching his enemies to the end of the earth. All this might have followed Jehovah’s appropriation of the people and His dwelling in their midst, had they been ready for the reception of their Messiah and for the blessings He brought; but, alas! Israel knew not the day of her gracious visitation, and so the blessing is postponed, but not lost. The full blessing of Joseph awaits millennial days. Joseph’s sons come in for Reuben’s portion and blessing (1 Chron. 5:1).

Zebulun and Issachar

Of Zebulun he said, “Rejoice, Zebulun, in thy going out; and Issachar, in thy tents.” (Deut. 33:18-19). Both tribes are called upon to rejoice. The former “in going out,” that is in commerce with the Gentiles; the latter as dwelling in her “tents,” that is in remaining in the land and trafficking at home. The river Belus, on the coast of Zebulun, furnished this commercial and maritime tribe with enormous quantities of fine sand, which they manufactured into glass. ‘Twas here, consequently, that the art of glass-making was first discovered, and which yielded a considerable revenue to this clever and industrious people. Besides this source of wealth, the seaport towns bordering on the Mediterranean, as Tyre and Sidon, poured their treasures into the country occupied by these tribes. Zebulun, particularly, looked after the sea trade, while the inland traffic was mainly taken up by Issachar.

Gad

The Gadites were a brave and courageous people, and, owing to their peculiarly exposed position on the eastern side of Jordan, were often in conflict with the surrounding nations. For mutual defence and protection, this tribe leagued itself with Reuben and half-tribe of Manasseh. The prowess of the people and their lion-like character were proverbial (Deut. 33:20-21). Gad “provided the first part for himself,” that is, the rich meadows and fertile lands of Gilead, particularly suitable for their numerous cattle. This very extensive and fine tract of country was claimed by the two tribes and a half already alluded to ere they crossed the Jordan (Num. 32). This apparent break in the unity of all Israel hitherto preserved, justly roused the jealousy of Moses and the tribes generally, which certainly was not allayed by their after action of building an altar apart from their brethren (Josh. 22). Gad, however, and the associate tribes had no intention to sever themselves from the nation, or break the link of relationship established between Jehovah and Israel. Gad passed “armed before the Lord” into Canaan, and even encouraged Joshua, in view of the conquest of the land (Josh. 1:12-18): Thus Gad “came with the heads of the people, he executed the justice of the Lord, and His judgments with Israel.”

Dan

“Of Dan he said, Dan is a lion’s whelp: he shall leap from Bashan.” (Deut. 33:22). The bold, cruel, reckless daring of this tribe, and their gross idolatry, are well known. Judges 18, furnishes a terrible example of their cruelty and idolatry combined. Six hundred Danites stealthily surrounded Laish (Lion), the people of which were living in careless ease, and far from their allies and friends the Zidonians. The leaping of a “lion’s whelp” from the hills of Bashan is the expressive symbol of this and other war exploits by the Danites. The city of Laish was taken, and all put to the sword; then they named it Dan, after their father. Samson, the lion-judge of Israel, was of this tribe. Satan is termed a “serpent” and a “lion”; so Jacob connects with this tribe the subtlety of the “serpent,” and Moses the daring of the “lion.”

Naphtali

“O Naphtali, satisfied with favour, and full with the blessing of the Lord; possess thou the west and the south.” (Deut. 33:23). Josephus, the Jewish historian, says of the territory possessed by this tribe, “One might call it the ambition of nature,” their part of the country abounding with gardens, palm, fig, olive, and other trees, and being exceedingly fruitful in flower and fruit. The full blessing of Jehovah rested upon this tribe; hence little wonder that Naphtali’s satisfaction with her portion is here dwelt upon. The cities of Capernaum and Chorazin, embraced in the bounds of this tribe and of Zebulun, were specially visited by the favour of Jehovah, not merely in temporal blessing, but also by the personal ministry of Jesus (Isa. 9:1-2; Matt. 4:12-16).

Asher

“Let Asher be blessed with children; let him be acceptable to his brethren, and let him dip his foot in oil. Thy shoes shall be iron and brass (copper); and as thy days, so shall thy strength be.” (Deut. 33:24-25). This tribe multiplied greatly, and although it is difficult, if not impossible, to define with geographical accuracy the exact boundaries of the tribes, yet it is certain that Asher’s portion was not only extensive but crowded with cities, towns and villages, as the abundant ruins fully testify. Here is the testimony of the Jewish historian — ”Moreover, the cities be here very thick; and the numerous villages are so full of people through the richness of the soil, that the very least of them contain about 15,000 inhabitants.”

The prediction “Let Asher be blessed with children” has been fulfilled to the letter. The favour with which the tribe was regarded by their brethren is next noted; “Let him dip his foot in oil,” is an expression referring to the wonderful fertile hills and plains, stretching down to the sea coast for many miles. The mountains are now bare enough, but at one time they were covered with olive trees, and the many oil presses yet extant, and of ancient origin, show that northern Israel must have been an exceedingly rich country.

Here, too, abounded “iron and brass,” rather “copper” (Deut. 33:25). The inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon were famous artificers and workers in metals generally, and were employed by Solomon in casting and preparing the holy vessels for the temple. The purple produced from the beautiful shellfish on the sea coast of the tribe is largely spoken of in Scripture, and altogether the portion of Asher was exceedingly large and full.

We would conclude these remarks — prophetic and historic — with the grand conclusion: “There is none like unto the God of Jeshurun, who rideth upon the heaven in thy help, and in His excellency on the sky. The eternal God is thy refuge, and underneath are the everlasting arms. ... Happy art thou, O Israel: who is like unto thee, O people saved by the Lord, the shield of thy help, and who is the sword of thy excellency!”

Botany of the Bible

The Scripture classification of vegetables and other products of the earth is a simple one (Gen. 1:11). It should ever be borne in mind that the Bible was written for the world, and has a moral end in view, even the glory of God. Wondrous it is that God should have laid, in the death of His Beloved Son, the ground of salvation to lost man; but, even here, as in the boundless sphere of creation all is subordinated to the maintenance and display of His own glory, whether of power as in creation, or of grace as in redemption. Neither botany nor any other subject is treated scientifically in the Scriptures. The wise and learned may object, but the mass can appreciate. We do not object to scientific accuracy, quite the contrary, but why insist upon it in a book designed for man as such, and whereas correct and satisfactory results are, in numerous subjects, arrived at simply as the result of careful observation? The Hebrews never formally wrote on botany, nor could they have produced a scientific delineation of the beautiful and abundant flora of their country; and yet from the “fig-tree” in Genesis to the “tree of life” in Revelation, the references in the Word to the botany of Israel, Egypt, etc. are exceedingly numerous, affording rich and abundant material in the enforcement and illustration of moral truth. In the mention of those trees, shrubs, and flowers, which can be presently identified, naturalists of the highest standing bear testimony to the exactness of the description given, and yet all is drawn from observation. What did Solomon know of botanical science? Yet “he spake of trees, from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon (tall, strong, and stately) even unto the hyssop (low, lying plant) that springeth out of the wall” (1 Kings 4:33).

“Modern travellers have repeatedly noticed the beauty and abundance of its spring flowers, and equally varied are its trees and shrubs: not less than 1000 species of plants have been recorded as natives of Israel, and the whole number of species probably reaches 2000; but of these a very small portion are referred to in Holy Writ, and those it is often difficult to identify with certainty.” We have about 28 names of trees, plants, and flowers specifically named in Scripture, but the difficulty of identifying even those with existing species is confessedly great; and hence some who have taken in hand this interesting branch of study have entered the regions of speculation and conjecture where we dare not follow them. Solid and reliable information is valuable, but conjectural statements should be shunned.

The Scripture classification of botanic physiology is thus simply stated: — “Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so” (Gen. 1:11). The loveliness of the “lily,” the fragrance of the “rose” among flowers; the extensively cultivated garden plant the “mint” and the common enough “anise” as spices; the healing “balm” and soporific property of the “myrrh;” the strength and durability of the “cedar” and “fir” amongst trees; the “fig,” “pomegranate,” and “almond” among fruits; the tall, dark “cypress,” waving over the graves of the departed; the stately “palm,” emblematic of victory, and the drooping “weeping willow” by the river’s side; besides, numerous aromatic and medicinal plants are all pressed into the service of the Holy Spirit in the unfolding of the circle of Divine truth, and further show that the ancients in Bible lands were well acquainted with the rich and varied flora of their respective regions. The trees and herbs yielded fruit and medicine, while the celebrated perfumes of the East were cultivated in their gardens and carefully compounded. From the Bible itself we learn that the Hebrews were enthusiastic students of nature. The following classification of the vegetable physiology of the Bible may prove helpful: —

Creation and Geology

In the following table we present a few facts gathered from the museum of the geological storehouse. We might have increased them tenfold, but those adduced are sufficient for our purpose, which is to show that instead of science and revelation being contradictory, they are in perfect harmony. It is the same God who wrote Holy Scripture that made the stones, and believing this, how can there be a contradiction between His word and His works? Ten thousand geological or other facts in nature leave untouched the absolute perfection of the Word of God; yea, we invite thorough, searching, and minute inquiry into every department of physical science. Give us any number of carefully ascertained facts. These we will gladly accept, and rebuke the fears of those who hesitate to receive them. But on the other hand, conclusions and deductions may be taken for their real worth. The foundations on which Christianity rest, are too solidly laid to be in the least disturbed by the unhallowed theories and fancies of men, however pious or learned. The Christian has the truth, both in a written and personal form; first in the Holy Scriptures, a full, inspired and completed revelation of the truth; need we say that there is abundant room for development in the apprehension of the truth, but certainly not in the truth itself. Again, Jesus said “I am the truth.” He was that, and is that, in His own person. Can there be progress or development in the glorified Man in heaven? Certainly not; while surely there is abundant scope for growth and increase in the knowledge of Him who “is the same, yesterday, to day and for ever.”

MINERALOGICAL FORMATION

ORGANIC REMAINS

		1		1
	Unstratified Rocks	Igneous or Crystalline Rocks, produced by the action of fire, as Granite, Syenite, Porphyry, Lava. We cannot penetrate beneath the fiery lava.		There could be no organic remains in this formation, as these unstratified rocks owe their origin to the intense heat which still prevails in the earth’s center.

		2		2
	First Stratification	First, Gneiss, consisting of particles of Granite and other igneous rock, deposited by water on solid Granite, and then hardened by intense heat. Second, Mica and Quartz in successional layers. Third, great rocks of Slates, various colours, hardening as they ascend. These separate groups are many thousand feet in thickness.		No organic remains have been found in the first of these sedimentary or stratified rocks, as they have been mostly formed by water, produced by the gases consequent on the cooling down of the atmosphere, hence life could not have existed under these conditions.

	3	3
Upper Cambrian	Slate Rocks, etc. This forms the upper portion, that is, nearest the earth’s surface, of that rocky series termed the “Cambrian Rocks,” and which have been, especially in their lower part, exposed to the powerful action of the heat and fire in the earth’s center. The Cambrian range is said to be from four to five miles in depth. [Cambria or Wales.]	The very few fossil remains — “the oldest monuments yet discovered of the creation of living things” — indicate life in its lowest forms, as creatures devoid of sight, and partly animal and vegetable, as the Zoophyte; also sea worms, etc.
	4	4
Silurian	The Sandstone, Limestone, etc. are a distinct formation from the preceding, and are termed the “Silurian Rocks.” The strata is more marked, the atmosphere being cooler; thus the sedimentary deposits were less disturbed in their action. Depth about 30,000 feet. [Siluria, anciently part of England and Wales.]	Here the organic remains are numerous, and reveal an order of life considerably in advance of any found in the Cambrian rocks. In this formation most of the animals have eyes. The eyes of the Trilobite are beautifully structured, and show that light must have penetrated to the region where they lived. It is only, however, in the upper section, nearest the earth’s surface, that a still higher order of life prevailed, and where vertebrate animals are found, as fish, etc.
	5	5
Devonian	This is sometimes spoken of as the “Old Red Sandstone” rock period. The sediment deposited has formed rocks often found 10,000 feet in depth. [Devonian, from Devonshire in England.]	The organic remains of fishes are of gigantic stature, and diversified in form and appearance. They are covered too with a hard bony substance, instead of scales. At the very bottom of this system we have the first indication of land vegetation.
	6	6
Carboniferous	Coal, Shale, Sandstone, Iron, and mountain Limestone. The beds of these various materials range from 700 feet to 3000, and probably in some places more. Coal is the product of decayed vegetable matter, and to produce the extensive coal measures abundant in all parts of the world, dense forests of immense extent must have existed. [So termed because the coal or carbon-producing period.]	In this interesting period we have not only the ancient forests and vegetable world largely represented, but fish and shells; also fossil remains of various insects and reptiles.
	7	7
Permian	New Red Sandstone, Rock Salt, etc. The sediment forming these rocks is on an average a 1000 feet in depth. [Permian, so called by the learned Murchison in 1841, because largely developed in Permia, an ancient kingdom, now part of the Russian Empire.]	Both the vegetation and animals are of a much higher order than in any previous era. The Sandstone reveals the footprints of large birds, which, treading on the soft sand, have in course of ages hardened, and thus left the witness of their presence in this period.
	8	8
Oolite	Clay, Sandstone, Marble, Fuller’s Earth, etc. Beds of these materials are, as a rule, about 2000 feet in depth. [So denominated from the peculiar egg-like character of the stone. Oon an egg, and Lithos, a stone.]	Here again there is a great advance in vegetation; trees of a large size, as the cypress, palm, etc. being abundant. This period is remarkable for the size, number, and variety of birds and reptiles, and as such, is distinctly characteristic of the period.
	9	9
Cretaceous	Chalk, Clay, Sand, Stone, etc. Some of these deposits are from 500 to 900 feet in thickness. [Cretaceous derives its name from the chalk so abundant here.]	Not many reptiles, but a great variety of marine productions, as corals, sponges, shells and plants, etc.
	10	10
Tertiary	Coral Rocks, Sea Bottoms, Gravel, Mud deposits and Sands. Many of these sedimentary deposits are about 40 feet, others again as deep as 500 feet. [Tertiary signifies the third order or formation.]	Many of the remains refer to existing species, others represent animals, reptiles, birds, plants, and numerous marine productions, some extinct and others not.

Age of the Earth

What, then, is the clear conclusion from even a cursory examination of the facts revealed by the geologist? It seems certain to us, as it is to all who have devoted any attention to the subject, that those huge rocks, from 15 to 20 miles deep, formed of accumulated and countless millions of particles of matter, and arranged in successional layers of the most orderly character, must have occupied for their formation periods of time so vast as to defy human calculation. Many of these rocks must at a remote age have formed the bed of the ocean, and others dry land, covered with vegetation. Those sedimentary rocks tell us that the waters were filled with life, that fishes and numerous aquatic animals of gigantic size and curiously shaped, once swam there, that amphibious animals disported themselves, and birds extraordinary for size and kind, trod those ancient sands and left their footprints behind them. What marvels those rocks unfold! What silent yet eloquent witnesses they are to the power, wisdom, and goodness of the Creator! Can the mind grasp the length of time needful to deposit material so as to form and consolidate rocks miles deep? Once more examine those rocks: Do they not tell us of rich, luxuriant vegetation? Look at those tropical plants found in the coldest regions, telling us that light and heat were equally diffused throughout the primeval earth. The magnificent foliage and shrubs and trees, of which there are no existing species producible by the naturalist, almost transport us into those immense, grand, old forests and gardens which the eye of man never beheld and human foot never trod. The silence of those bye-gone ages was broken by the hiss of serpent and reptile of enormous length and singular form; those dense forests once reverberated with the joyous notes of birds, who flapped their mighty wings, and where stalked the giant animals of that creation. And all this turned into stone! Has all this been accomplished in a day of 24 hours? To state the proposition is sufficient as a refutation. We are not now raising any question affecting divine power, nor would we indulge in the unhallowed thought that God is not free to create in any shape or in any moment of time, but we have clear and indubitable evidence in the organic remains before us, of fossils, bones, skins, flesh, skeletons, etc. that the creation disentombed by the geologist did not come as it is now from the Creator’s hands. To any who would question the wisdom of a pre-Adamic creation, we would say, Have you ever reflected on the goodness of God in turning the primeval vegetable world into coal? Need we refer to the “carboniferous” era, so essential to the domestic and commercial daily life of man; and yet who can tell, or even form the least conception of the important changes which must have transpired, and the enormous time needed to perfect the state of things displayed in these rocks and fossils, the benefits of which we are now enjoying. Is there a page in the book of Holy Scripture, or a line in the volume of nature, informing us as to the antiquity of the globe? There is not. The first date recorded in the Word of God will be found in Gen. 5:3, “And Adam lived an hundred and thirty years.” The measures of time in the book of Genesis refer to the age of man, not to the earth at all; and hence it was an unhappy blunder of that otherwise able and accomplished chronologist, Archbishop Usher, to date the first verse of the Bible at 4004 B.C. for which there is not the slightest authority in the sacred text.

If, then, the voice of science urgently demand a vastly longer period for the formation of its numerous strata than that wrongly marked in our Bibles, and, further, that vegetation must have flourished, light and heat existed, and land animals at least lived under conditions not furnished by the present state of things since man was created, What is the natural conclusion? Why, that our thoughts, our previous habits of thinking and speaking, are wrong, not the Word of God, as the unsanctified lips of some have dared to utter. We do not say that the Word of God falls in with the results and facts of science, thus dishonouring the Word; it never borrows light, but adds a lustre and glory to every subject it touches.

The Six Creation Days

Our statement then is, that the first verse of the Bible is a separate and independent affirmation, and is not to be accepted as a summary of the succeeding verses describing the six days’ work, and for this we will give Scripture proof presently. “In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.” Does the Word of God say that this “beginning” was 6000 years ago, and, if so, where? All that the first verse of Genesis asserts is, that in a certain undated “beginning” God created. When or how we are not informed. This original creation may have been 20,000 years ago, or a 100,000 if you choose. Matter, therefore, is not eternal, for it had a “beginning,” and its creator was “God.” The reader must not suppose that this interpretation is offered to save the credit of the Word of God; its statements are absolutely perfect, and it is well to know that many centuries before geology could be counted as a science, and before she ever presented a single difficulty, such early writers as Augustine, Basil, Origen, and others held that the first verse of Genesis and the six days of creation were entirely distinct. Now read verse 2, “And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.” What a scene of waste, darkness, and desolation! Did God create it so? Is not perfection stamped upon the various works and ways of God? “His work is perfect.” We can scarcely suppose any sober-minded Christian to hold that God created the earth in the ruined condition so graphically described by Moses, and which the eye of the seer beheld as an emblem of Israel’s utter desolation (Jer. 4:23).

We believe this matter will be greatly simplified by careful attention to two inspired, therefore authoritative statements. First, Moses says, “In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.” Now, that this does not refer to the earth’s condition as “without form and void” is evident from Isaiah 45:18, “For thus saith the Lord that created the heavens; God Himself that formed the earth and made it; He hath established it, He created it not in vain (or ‘void,’ the same word as in Gen. 1:2), He formed it to be inhabited.” Hence in this second statement we are expressly told that God did not create the earth empty or “void,” as described in the second verse of Genesis. The following rough plan may bring the order more clearly before the mind: —

Step 1

“In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth,” filling the latter with animal and vegetable life, as “the book of stone” bears witness. When it was created, and how long it thus existed, Scripture does not inform us.

(Here follows a long and uncounted period of time.)

Step 2

“And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep.” How this terrible calamity happened, and how long the earth lay desolate and ruined, we know not, but Isaiah (45:18) expressly says God did not create it so.

(Here follows another lengthened measure of time.)

Step 3

“And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.” The brooding of the Spirit of God over the awful desolation was certainly prior to the six days’ work, but as surely introductory to it.

(Here follows another interval, but necessarily a brief one.)

Step 4 – Seven Days

First day of 24 hours — verse 5.
Second day of 24 hours — verse 8.
Third day of 24 hours — verse 13.
Fourth day of 24 hours — verse 19.

Fifth day of 24 hours — verse 23.

Sixth day of 24 hours — verse 31.

Seventh day of 24 hours (?) — we are not told. (Scripture does not apply the words “evening and morning” to the seventh day)

See now, how perfectly this meets the demands of science for time and terms of life, unknown to man since he became a tenant on the earth; for between the two first verses of Genesis, you are welcome to measures of time as long as you choose, and to evolve principles and conditions of existence which could only apply to a pre-Adamic earth.

But in order to reconcile Scripture and geology, it has been sought to turn the separate days in which the heavens and the earth were made, into lengthened periods of time, and, as is well known, the late Mr. Hugh Miller, although not the author of this theory, was perhaps its most able and powerful exponent. But is not this trifling with the Word of God? Is not the interpretation forced and unnatural? Why should it be six times repeated, “The evening and the morning were the ... day,” if we were thereby to understand lengthened measures of time? Besides, the interpretation when applied to the successive strata disclosed by the geologist does not satisfy. That a general correspondence may be traced between the geological periods and the six days’ work would be generally admitted. Mr. Miller has himself satisfactorily established a likeness between the three great geological periods, and the third, fifth, and sixth days of Genesis 1, but that is all; absolute identity there is not, and we suspect Mr. M. must have felt the difficulty, as he did not attempt a formal proof of the whole. There are various facts which make this theory untenable, and many who received it are now, on more mature consideration, giving it up. It has been said that in “six days the Lord created heaven and earth,” and hence there could have been no previous creation, as we have stated. But it may be replied that Scripture not once asserts a creation in six days: it is written, “In six days the Lord made heaven and earth” (Ex. 20:11). The word “create,” strictly used, is applied to the production of things by the word or work of God, apart altogether from pre-existing materials or matter (Heb. 11:3), while the word “made” signifies to shape or form existing material: “these are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created [Gen. 1:1], in the day that the Lord God made the earth and the heavens [verses 3-31]” (Gen. 2:4). The distinction between “creating” and “making” is all-important in considering the mutual relations of geology and the Scripture account of creation. The Bible does not, of course, formally, teach science, yet, on whatever theme it speaks, absolute perfection of statement may be relied upon. One solitary fact has not yet been produced (although the treasures of creation have been eagerly ransacked for the unholy purpose) in opposition to any statement found in the Word of God.

Deeply interesting and morally instructive are the details of the six days’ work, and the more carefully they are examined, it will be found that they throw light on numerous points, and amply confirm the fact of a pre-Adamic creation — of that world without a human inhabitant, and which had undergone various violent catastrophes ere it was prepared as a dwelling for man.

First Day

“And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.” The sublimity of this passage lies in its grand simplicity. Many, besides the great heathen critic Longinus, have been struck with admiration at the perfectly magnificent utterance, and it has been repeatedly brought forward as one of the finest passages on record. Instantly the light broke in upon the dense and universal scene of darkness. Observe that it is not said the light was then created, but caused to be. There had been light previously, as the facts of geology clearly show. Would any pretend to say that God would create animals with eyes of exquisite workmanship and of keen vision, and yet no light existing; or that God would have created a darkened heaven and earth? Here then is light, independent of, and apart from the heavenly orbs, which were not made or set in heaven till the fourth day. When or where was it known that light could exist apart from the heavenly bodies? It is only of late years that science has demonstrated the fact, and thereby paid another tribute of homage to the unerring accuracy of the Mosaic account of creation. Light travels at the astonishing rate of about 195,000 miles in one second. Sound is a slow traveller compared to this, journeying at the rate of about 13 miles in one minute.

Second Day

“And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.” The obedience was instant and complete, and the expanse thereby formed between the waters was called “heaven,” that is, the atmosphere which extends upwards to about 50 miles, and which is essential to the three kingdoms of nature — animal, vegetable, and mineral. You will observe that we have three heavens spoken of in Scripture. Paul was caught up to the third heaven (2 Cor. 12:4), which is spoken of as the immediate presence of God, and the region of the Divine glory, also the dwelling place of angels and saints; then the second heaven, or region of the sun, moon, and starry host (Job 38:31-33, etc.) — these heavens are referred to in Genesis 2:4, as created according to the interpretation given of the opening verse of the Bible; while here we have the third, or atmospheric heaven.

Third Day

The work of the third day claims special attention. It will be observed in the course of the chapter that the Creator six times pronounced His work “good,” and on the completion of the whole “very good”; but be it noted that on the second day the word of approval is omitted, while on the third it occurs twice. Why is this? It will be observed that the formation of the expanse, while separating the “waters from the waters,” still left the earth submerged and shapeless. Disorder still reigned supreme. Hence, when the third day dawned, God gathered the waters under heaven together. Oceans, seas, lakes, rivers were formed; and mountains, islands, continents, valleys, sprang out of the dry ground, thus completing the work of the second day, and which was then pronounced “good” (verse 10). Another distinction may here be pointed out. In the course of the first three days’ work, the word “called” occurs five times (verses 5-10), while it is not again used throughout the chapter. Is this a trivial matter, not worth noting either by writer or reader? Nothing is unimportant which it has pleased God to communicate, and it would be well for the blessing and profit of our souls were we to scan, with microscopic minuteness, the blessed pages of inspiration. In those three days, therefore, the groundwork was laid in which the life, beauty, and bountifulness of creation were to be displayed. Thus the “day,” ruled by the glorious sun; the “night,” by the silvery moon (verse 5); “heaven,” the great distributor of light and heat, and the region where every swift and beauteous bird warbles its joyous notes (verse 8); “earth,” with its countless treasures hidden in its womb, and its surface clad with vegetation; and “sea,” teeming with life, and fruitful in blessing to man and creation (verse 10), are each distinctly named and “called” by God. Thus the creative week is divided; the first half in laying the groundwork, the second half in furnishing and adorning it. That this is not an arbitrary distinction will be apparent from the following parallelism of the days and divisions of the week:

	FIRST DAY —	FOURTH DAY —
	Light to discern the darkness:	Light to dispel the darkness.
	SECOND DAY —	FIFTH DAY —
	Water and heaven:	Fishes for the one and birds for the other.
	THIRD DAY —	SIXTH DAY —
	Land and vegetation:	Sphere for animals and man, and food for both.

In considering the third day’s work, which is pretty fully related, we meet with another of the many proofs of a previous creation; for observe that the “earth” is not here said to be created, no more than it was said of the “light” (verse 3). For ages the earth lay buried beneath the waters, awaiting the command of its Creator to arise from its watery tomb (2 Peter 3:5): “Let the dry land appear” (verse 9), and it was so. We cannot help here transcribing the beautiful verses of the Psalmist: —

“Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed forever. Thou coveredst it with the deep as with a garment [Gen. 1:2]: The waters stood above the mountains. At Thy rebuke they fled; at the voice of Thy thunder they hasted away. They go up by the mountains; they go down by the valleys unto the place which Thou hast founded for them.” (Psa. 104:5-8).

God Said and the Wonderful Results

The earth’s circumference is about 25,000 miles, and her area about 197,000,000 square miles, including land and water, the latter covering about three-fourths of the whole, or 145,500,000 square miles. The revolution of the earth on its own axis every twenty-four hours gives us day and night, and its yearly journey round the sun is performed in 365 days and 6 hours: thus a year, and, of course, the change of seasons. We must again call the reader’s attention to the double action of this day. It will be observed that the commencement of each day’s work is prefaced by the fiat of command — “God SAID”; while on its completion we meet with the token of satisfaction — “God saw that it was good.” On the third day both expressions occur, first, as to the appearing of the dry land, and secondly, the covering of the earth with vegetation and beauty. At the Divine command the three orders of vegetable life at once covered the dry, but bare and barren earth, commencing with the lowest scale of vegetable physiology (grass) and ascending to the highest (fruit trees). This was a wonderfully gracious act of creative power. We have not only beauty adorning the new earth, but food and sustenance for man and beast. The delicately tinted flowers filled the balmy air with their delightful aroma. The green herb in countless variety, as meat for beast, fowl, and creeping thing, sprang forth in maturity and perfection in their respective regions at the voice of the beneficent Creator; while a rich and abundant supply of food for man was provided in the fruit trees and herbs having seed in themselves — the power to propagate — and, aided by means of Divine ordering (Gen. 1:22), to branch out into almost endless variety. The inspired comment far exceeds in real sublimity and matchless simplicity anything ever penned by man. Is this not so?

“He sendeth the springs into the valleys, which run among the hills. They give drink to every beast of the field: the wild asses quench their thirst. By them shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation, which sing among the branches. He watereth the hills from His chambers: the earth is satisfied with the fruit of Thy works. He causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of man: that he may bring forth food out of the earth; And wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to make his face to shine, and bread which strengtheneth man’s heart. The trees of the Lord are full of sap; the cedars of Lebanon, which He hath planted; where the birds make their nests: as for the stork, the fir trees are her house. ... O Lord, how manifold are Thy works! in wisdom hast Thou made them all: the earth is full of Thy riches.” (Psa. 104:10-24).

We have nearly 300 plants, flowers, herbs, and trees named in Scripture, from the fig tree in Genesis till the tree of life in Revelation.

Fourth Day

The work of the fourth day (verses 14-19) does not call for lengthened remarks. The celestial orbs were “made,” not created, on this day, and set in heaven to light the earth and regulate her motions. We have light on the first day, and the atmosphere on the second, essential to the vegetation of the third; but if thereby it is shown that light was independent of the sun, and vegetation flourished without solar light and heat, it is equally plain, we judge, that on the fourth day the sun became the tabernacle and throne of light and heat, and further, that the permanence of the vegetable world was made dependent on the solar system and starry host. We conceive that the great point in the work of the fourth day is the adaptation of the celestial luminaries to the conditions of life and state of things on the earth, whether of the material or organic worlds. The incidental allusion to the stars (verse 16) confirms our statement, that it is not the creation of the lights, but their place in heaven and their functions towards the earth which are expressed in these verses.

The sun is the great center of a vast system, and its distance from the earth is computed at 95,000,000 miles, and its diameter at about 890,000 miles. It revolves on its own axis every twenty-five days and ten hours. The pale and lovely moon is distant from us about 240,000 miles, and its diameter is about 2000 miles. Were a spectator standing at the equator, 5000 stars might be seen, but only on a clear moonless night. Countless numbers are of course observable by the aid of powerful telescopes.

Fifth Day

In the work of the fifth day we have the waters stocked with aquatic animals and the firmament with flying fowl. This we conceive is an advance on the preceding steps of creation, and manifests a putting forth of Divine energy of a much higher kind than we have yet witnessed. Who but God could create life? Hence, for the first time in the course of the work, as detailed in the previous days, we have the word “created” (verse 21). Neither the “moving creature” nor flying fowl were created out of the waters, as has been insisted upon from the reading of verse 20. The region or sphere where each were to move and live is the thought in the passage, and this is confirmed in the case of the “fowl” from the marginal reading of the text, and from Genesis 2:19, while the creatures inhabiting the waters are expressly said, in Genesis 1:21, to have been created by God.

Sixth Day

The sixth day now dawns upon the world, when the last act of creative wisdom and power is to crown the whole. There is a twofold action on this day, as there was on the third. First, the creation of land animals and creatures (verses 24-25), prefaced as usual with the Divine word calling into existence, “God said,” and closing with the Creator beholding His work and expressing His satisfaction therein, “God saw that it was good.” Second, we have the creation of man, his place in the terrestrial sphere, then food for man and creature life generally. The three-fold order of land mammalia is given as follows: —

1. Cattle — as horses, sheep, oxen, and generally domestic animals.

2. Creeping things — as serpents, reptiles, and invertebrate creatures.

3. Beasts of the earth — as lions, and generally beasts of prey.

We have two creations of life on the fifth day, that of fishes and birds; and also two on the sixth day, that of land animals and man.

We come now to the creation of man and his place of lordship and dignity in the beautifully-ordered scene. We have had light (verse 3) thrown upon a ruined, dark, and watery waste. What a scene of desolation the light revealed! Next we had the waters divided and a beautiful expanse formed, but as yet untenanted. (verse 7). Then followed the appearing of the dry land: instantly, at the Divine word, she clad herself with beauty and vegetation. (verses 9-12). The sun then poured its golden beams upon the beauteous earth, and as she gently sinks in the west, the pale and silvery light of the moon — the queen of the night — aided by the brilliant starry host, illuminate the earth and heaven (verse 16); then the waters are filled with life and heaven with flying bird (verses 20-21); lastly, the land is occupied with cattle, beasts, and moving creatures. What then? Is the work complete? As yet there was no intelligent, responsible creature morally competent to express the Creator in the vast and sinless scene. Where could you find amongst the various forms of organic life in heaven, earth, or sea, a being who could lead creation’s praise, enter into the moral perfections displayed by God in His beauteous workmanship, represent Him therein, and be the vehicle of the Divine thoughts to the waiting creation. Now, however, God will work in the absoluteness of His sovereign will, and create man in His moral likeness, and to be His representative in power on the earth. This was truly a work worthy of the Creator, and surely it was fitting that thus a moral link should be established between the Creator and His work.

We need scarcely say that the creation of man on the sixth day is in perfect accord with the results of geological researches. We have upwards of 30,000 species of organic life displayed in the various strata, and not an instance on record of human remains being found save in the upper tertiary formation or “historical period,” where, of course, existing species are plentiful. We are, of course, aware that certain cases have been triumphantly cited, in opposition to our statement, but we are equally aware that on careful investigation each instance so alleged has turned out a grievous mistake. One such case is fresh in our recollection. A distinguished savant made the startling assertion that a human skeleton had been found at the root of a tree 600 feet below the surface. The story was thoroughly sifted, and the result was that a skeleton had been found, not fossilized, mark you, but in “good preservation,” at a depth of 16 feet. First, then, we have vegetable life, then fishes for the sea, and birds for the heaven, followed by land animals, and lastly man; and this is the order observable in the Scripture account of creation, centuries before the very name “geology” was coined. When will men learn that the temple of science can only be reverently trod by sanctified feet, and that in it the first lesson I must learn is, that God is always right, that His word is supreme as an authority on all questions affecting Christianity — our relationships to God, and also to science, our relationships to creation?

The following remarks by Mr. W. Kelly in his able and masterly lecture on “Creation,” are worth careful consideration: — “It is only when man is thus about to be made that God says, “Let us.” Oh, can you not appreciate the spirit of such a word as this? Can you not admire the way in which God, as it were, sits in council on the creation of man? Can you not judge between the physiologist that would make an ape his progenitor, and the Bible that reveals God thus creating man in His own image? Which is the more noble? which is the more degrading? Of no other creature is it said, “Let us make,” when it was a question of the earth, the sea, nay, of light itself — nothing of the sort. “Light be,” said Elohim, “and light was.” But as to the others: He wrought, but with no such preface as “Let us make.” Here it is for the first and only time: “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion.” What can be farther from development? Such an idea is altogether foreign; and, indeed, the existence of different races and kinds has been engraved by God most legibly on the world of nature; for although man by his wicked ingenuity may cross the breed, as e.g. of animals that were put under his dominion, the result is always to induce sterility — the standing witness, on the one hand, against man’s meddling; and, on the other, for the order in which God meant His creation to proceed. Thus is set before us succinctly, but plainly, the general course of creation.”

After man had been settled on the earth as God’s vicegerent — it’s Lord and center under the Creator — the whole range and boundless extent of the vegetable world is given as a storehouse of food for man and beast; herbs having seed and fruit trees being for man, and the green herbs simply for all the rest of land creatures. “And on the seventh day God ended His work which He had made; and He rested on the seventh day from all His work which He had made. And God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it: because that in it He had rested from all His work which God created and made.” Thus God put the broad stamp of approval upon His handiwork. He blessed and sanctified the day which declared the completion of His creative labour for the blessing of man.

“Praise ye the Lord. Praise ye the Lord from the heavens: praise Him in the heights. Praise ye Him, all His angels: praise ye Him, all His hosts. Praise ye Him, sun and moon: praise Him, all ye stars of light. Praise Him, ye heavens of heavens, and ye waters that be above the heavens. Let them praise the name of the Lord: for He commanded, and they were created.” (Psa. 148) Amen and Amen.

Divine Names and Titles

Our studies in this interesting field of Bible research will be found to throw some light upon dispensational truth, and, what is better still, the rays of the Divine glories emitted from these names and titles are both numerous and diversified. The following brief notes will, it is hoped, help the reader in perceiving the beauty of, and remarkable precision in which the various names and titles of the Godhead are written in Holy Scripture.

Brief Summary

1. God (Elohim). Glory and power connected with creation and God-head fullness.

2. God (Eloah). Only living and true God, object of worship, and subject of testimony.

3. Lord God. Creature relationships established with the Creator.

4. Lord or Jehovah. Moral relationship established with Israel.

5. Almighty God. Divine sustainment for the saint; Divine wrath on the sinner.

6. Most High God. Mediatorial power, priesthood and blessing in the coming kingdom.

7. Lord of all the earth. Authority over and proprietorship of the earth.

8. God of heaven. Divine government exercised providentially on the earth.

9. Father. God’s relationship to New Testament believers.

10. Jesus. Personal name of our Lord when on earth.

11. Christ. Our standing before God, and measure of our new place and blessing.

12. Jesus Christ. The once humbled, but now exalted one.

13. Christ Jesus. The now exalted one, once humbled on earth.

14. Lord Jesus Christ. Authority, united to manhood and glory.

15. Son of God. Divine and personal glory.

16. Son of Man. Earthly glory and dominion.

17. Son of David. Judaic glory — co-extensive with Immanuel’s land and people.

1. God (Elohim)

This is the fourth word in the Bible, and by far the most frequently used of any of the Divine names, occurring in the Scriptures about 2700 times. It is a fact of no small importance, and one which has been greatly overlooked in the consideration of questions bearing upon the plurality and unity of the persons of the Godhead, that the name “Elohim” is the plural form of the word “Eloah,” also translated “God” about 60 times in the Scriptures. Scholars have been greatly puzzled to account for the very interesting fact that a plural word of such frequent occurrence in the Hebrew Scriptures, should have been by the Jews themselves, so uniformly rendered God, and that, too, by a people so very jealous about their sacred writings. What need, however, of the least surprise, when it is borne in mind that the Holy Spirit — the Divine penman — would in the twenty-seven hundred occurrences of the name “Elohim,” afford abundant and irrefragable evidence of the fullness, glory, and unity of the persons of the Godhead. What a triumphant answer is thus supplied in the name itself, to those who would with unhallowed lips dare to depreciate the glory of our God, of His Christ, or of the Holy Spirit.

Creation is not ascribed to the “Father,” but to “God,” and to the “Son;” thus, in Genesis 1, and including verses 1-3 of chapter 2 which closes the Divine account of creation, God (Elohim) occurs 35 times. In Genesis 7:9, we read, “There went in two and two unto Noah into the ark, male and the female, as God (Elohim) had commanded Noah”; the propagation of the species, and God’s right and title in creation sufficiently account for the name in this connection; but in verse 5 of the same chapter, where moral relationship is in question, seven pairs of clean animals and birds (for sacrifice, chap. 8:20) were to be preserved in the ark; the great relationship title is then used: “And Noah did according unto all that the Lord commanded him.”

“Elohim” is sometimes applied to others besides the Creator, as “gods,” in Exodus 32:4-8 — there it is Hebrew idolatrous worship; also, “strange gods,” Deuteronomy 32:16, where it is Heathen idolatry; used also of Judges, (Ex. 21:6); of Angels, (Psa. 97:7); and of Israel, (Psa. 82:6). In all these instances, it will be observed that the idea of might and authority are contemplated.

2. God (Eloah)

The first occurrences of this name, of which we have about 60 in all, are in Deuteronomy 32:15-17. It is the singular form of the plural name “Elohim,” both words being rendered “God” in our English Bibles, and without any distinguishing mark. Israel, as a nation, was placed in the midst of an idolatrous world as a testimony against the gross idolatry and corruption of the heathen, and as a witness to the unity of Jehovah; to Him who is alone and one in power, wisdom, and goodness, in contrast to the numerous gods and deities of the world. An integral part of all divine testimony from the days of Abram, whether Patriarchal, Jewish, or Christian, is that “our God is one Lord” (Mark 12:29; 1 Tim. 2:5). Thus where the idolatry of Jew or Gentile with their “gods many and their lords many” are in question, Eloah is generally used as being the name and expression of the only living and true God, the object of all testimony and worship.

To the uncircumcised and idolatrous heathen, God sent a message in their own language (Syriac or Aramean), that their gods (elohim) shall certainly perish from the earth, and from under these heavens (Jer. 10:11); this threat will be duly executed in the day of Jehovah’s anger, as Isaiah 2:18, solemnly intimates, “The idols He shall utterly abolish.”

3. Lord God

This double title occurs for the first time in Genesis 2:4. The responsibilities of man to God, and of moral obligation generally, were established in innocence (ch. 2), and are divinely upheld and maintained (ch. 3), in spite of the lawlessness of man. Responsibility and moral obligation are in no wise dependent upon the state or condition in which humanity is found, hence, in those two chapters, the title “Lord God,” occurs 20 times. Blessed it is to know that in the Cross of the Lord Jesus Christ, the whole question of creature responsibility in all its breadth, has been settled and closed forever for all who believe, and that Christ risen from the dead is the new source of a new life and head of a new race — that the Second Man imparts the virtue of His own condition before God, and thus, all Christian responsibility directly flows from the new position and new life which the believer possesses in Christ. Man innocent in Eden (Gen. 2), and guilty outside Eden (Gen. 3), is taught that the Lord with whom he is in moral relationship, is none other than God (Elohim), whose power and glory forms the theme of creation’s song and testimony (Psa. 19; 145). Man’s peculiar creation — “And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul” — at once placed him in a position immensely superior to the various living creations above or around; his place was one of conscious intelligent relationship to his Creator, hence flows man’s accountability to God. He who alone is, and supreme in power, in creation, glory, and in the excellency and fullness of His Divine Being, has been pleased in His Sovereign goodness to put man — His creature — into positive relationship with Himself.

4. Lord or Jehovah

This, of all the Divine names, was held in peculiar reverence by the Jews, and the import of which they perfectly understood, as expressing absolute existence — the name of the great I AM (Ex. 3:14). The force and value of this Divine name, is much more difficult to perceive by a Gentile mind than by a Jewish one; the latter’s religious training and education, by Jehovah Himself, making the ancient people perfectly familiar with the name and in some measure with its value to them as a people. But to us — saved Gentiles — the Holy Spirit has been pleased to communicate the meaning of the name Jehovah, as we, too, stand related to Him. For, is not Jesus of the New Testament, Jehovah of the old? (compare Matt. 14:14-21, with Psa. 132, especially verse 15)? It is also written, “I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord (Jehovah), which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty” (Rev. 1:8). We learn the absoluteness of His being, of Him who is the independent, self-existing One, in the words “which is” (compare with John 8:58), while Jehovah’s relation to the past is expressed in the words “which was,” and His relation to the future in the sentence, “which is to come.” Both man (Gen. 4) and Israel (Ex. 6:3) were placed by Jehovah in distinct moral relationship with Himself; the latter in special covenant relationship. The terms on which the patriarchs stood with God, are described by other Divine names than that of Jehovah.

In the book of Psalms, God (Elohim) occurs about 360 times, while Lord (Jehovah) occurs about 700 times. In the first book of Psalms consisting of Psalms 1 to 41, Jehovah, the covenant name and title of relationship occurs upwards of 270 times, and Elohim only about 50 times. In the second book of Psalms, those from Psalm 42 to Psalm 72, we do not meet with more than 30 instances of Jehovah, while Elohim occurs about 200 times. Psalms 14 and 53 furnish us with further illustrations of the Spirit’s careful use of these names; in each Psalm the name of God occurs seven times; in the former Psalm “Lord” occurs four times, and “God” three times, while in the latter Psalm “God” alone occurs seven times; in the former of these Psalms it is said “the Lord looked down from Heaven”; while in the latter it reads “God looked down from Heaven”; in Psalm 14, the wicked “call not upon the Lord”; while in Psalm 53 it is they have not “called upon God.” These and other distinctions which might be pointed out are not unimportant. On what principle then are they to be understood? Judah in her land and especially in Jerusalem, consequently in covenant relationship with Jehovah is, in the main, the subject of the first book of Psalms, hence the frequent use of the covenant name “Lord” or Jehovah; but in the second book, Judah is regarded as outcast from her land and glorious city, and the mass of the people in apostasy from God and truth, and identified with the Antichrist, thus “God” is the leading title. Read Psalms 14 and 53 in this light and, instead of confusion, the perfect order and Divine beauty of these titles will at once appear. God — the Creator-Name and Jehovah — the covenant title explain these differences which have baffled German wisdom and English “advanced thinking.” God is always right and man is always wrong.

There are various words translated Lord, Lord, lord, both in the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, conveying shades of thought interesting to close and critical readers of the Bible. Lord, however, is only applied to Him who is known as Jehovah, the self-existing one; but “Lord” is also applied to Jehovah in the Old Testament, although not so frequently as in Psalm 8, etc.; the former being printed in small capitals, the latter in ordinary letters.

We have Jehovah, the independent self-existing one — Exodus 6:3.

We have Jehovah-jireh, the Divine provider of sacrifice — Genesis 22:14.

We have Jehovah-Nissi, our banner in victorious conflict — Exodus 17:5.

We have Jehovah-Shalom, our altar of peace — Judges 6:24.

We have Jehovah-Shammah, the Divine presence in Jerusalem — Ezekiel 48:35.

We have Jehovah-Tsidkenu, our righteousness — Jeremiah 23:6.

“Lord” is used of Christ in the New Testament about 650 times, 170 of these being found in the Gospels alone; in nearly 160 of the New Testament occurrences of this Divine title, it is clearly identical with Jehovah, just as Jesus the Son of Man is identified with “the Ancient of days.” (Compare Rev. 1:13-16 with Dan. 7:9).

The term “Lord” does not once occur in John’s three Epistles, and the familiar phrase “in the Lord” is only found in the writings of the great Gentile apostle, with but one exception (Rev. 14:13). All Christian responsibility, whether of a corporate, individual, or social character, is directly connected with Christ as Lord. The various relationships of life are to be duly observed and regulated by what is due to Him in this character (Eph. 6:1-10; Col. 3:17-25). Christ’s Lordship in the Christian Assembly (1 Cor. 12:3-5) and in the godly observance of the Eucharistic feast or supper, in connection with which the title “Lord” is used eight times (1 Cor. 11), is a truth almost unknown, or, if so, nearly ignored by the professing Church. The title “Lord” is also the expression of Christ’s rights over man and creation (Matt. 13:44; 2 Peter 2, etc.). Peter’s great Pentecostal sermon (Acts 2) is concluded by the statement “that God hath made that same Jesus whom ye have crucified, both Lord and Christ.” Jehovah He is, and that in virtue of His Divine Person, but as man, He was made “Lord,” and exalted to God’s right hand, and as such He has just claims over the Christian, over man and over creation. Our responsibilities are connected with the exalted Man as “Lord,” our blessings are connected with the exalted Man as “Christ.” The latter name is connected with Christian position, thus “in Christ” defines my place before God, while the former name is as directly connected with the whole range of Christian duty and responsibility. Hence “in the Lord” divinely regulates my place and conduct on earth.

5. Most High God

This is a beautiful millennial title, occurring four times in that typical kingdom picture, (Gen. 14:18-24) it also occurs several times in the Gentile book of prophecy — Daniel. “The Most High God, possessor of heaven and earth,” will receive the worship of the millennial nations, and will also pour down His blessings upon them. The heavens and the earth will be filled with blessing and be vocal with praise. Melchizedek, in whom was united priesthood and royalty, points to Christ in whom every glory centers, and who alone is able and alone worthy to bear the double glory of kingly power and priestly grace, as saith the prophet, “He shall be a priest upon His throne” (Zech. 6:13). Now, this blessing from God to man and from man to God (Gen. 14:19-20) is exercised mediatorially. The coming kingdom, both in its celestial or upper, and terrestrial or lower spheres, will be received from the Father (Luke 19:12), and for one thousand years the Lord Jesus — the true Melchizedek — will sway the sceptre in righteousness; will unite all things in the heavens and on the earth; will be God’s representative in the creation; will be the link of blessing from God to man, and the channel of worship from man to God, and at the close of His glorious reign, He will deliver up the kingdom to God (1 Cor. 15:24-28) in the Divine perfection in which it was received; thus the kingdom and all its connected glories will be mediatorial in character.

“Most High” is used ten times in Daniel; five times in chapter 4 and five times in chapter 7. In the latter Scripture, the expression occurs three times in a plural form, and refers to the heavenly places, (Eph. 1:3 and 6:12) it might be translated “high places”; the other two instances where “Most High” is used, is in the chapter is in verse 25, and is rightly applied to God; the other occurrences applying to the sphere of blessing, not to the Blesser. The expression “Most High” in Daniel 7:27, is an interesting passage, as showing the connection between the glory celestial and the glory terrestrial. “And the kingdom and dominion, and the greatness of the kingdom under the whole heaven, shall be given to the people (Jewish people) of the saints of the Most High (that is the risen and glorified saints dwelling in the heavenly places), whose kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and all dominions shall serve and obey Him.” While earthly dominion is committed to the Jews on earth; the heavenly glory and rule over the earth will be enjoyed by the saints risen and glorified, and immediately associated with Christ; while the connection between the heavens and the earth and the saints occupying both spheres will be blessedly maintained. This is not an arbitrary thought, as Revelation 21:12,24,26 and Hosea 2:21-23, have a similar strain as their burden.

6. Almighty God

“Almighty” is used about 60 times in the Scriptures and is a word applied to God only. Sometimes it occurs alone, and sometimes in conjunction with other divine names or titles; about 30 of these occurrences will be found in the ancient and interesting book of Job.

“Almighty God” occurs but twice in the Bible; first, in Genesis 17:1, and second, in Revelation 19:15. Abraham the pilgrim and stranger called out from an idolatrous world to walk with God, would find in the revelation of the “Almighty God” a sure and all sufficient resource. “God Almighty” in His grace; “Almighty” in His sustaining power; “Almighty” in Divine resources; “Almighty” for an arm of flesh to lean upon — such would seem to be the force of this grand Patriarchal title. To the pilgrim fathers of Israel God revealed Himself as the Almighty (Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 48:3) — the everlasting and memorial name of Israel’s Divine Saviour (Ex. 3:15). In announcing to Moses the approaching deliverance of His people, God thus speaks to His servant: “And I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of God Almighty; but by My name Jehovah was I not known to them” (Ex. 6:3), that is as a name of distinct and ordered relationship. No doubt the fathers of the people were for long familiar with the title “Jehovah,” as it is often met with previous to Israel’s history, but God did not please to reveal Himself to them as Jehovah, but as “God Almighty.” Thus God has revealed Himself to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, as the “Almighty” One; to Israel as “Jehovah,” and to Christians as “Father.” How appropriate! How Divine the wisdom in the use and value of these several displays and revelations of God! If a saint, walking in the path of lowly obedience to the word of God, will clear himself from all untrue, false, and unholy fellowships — sacred or secular — as did Abram (Gen. 12) in his day, — what are the resources and aids of such an one? If the exhortations of 2 Corinthians 6:14-18 are imperative, calling for prompt and godly action, the encouragement and sustaining grace are of the most blessed character; could aught exceed the sweetness of those words? — “I will receive you, and will be a Father unto you, and ye shall be My sons and daughters, saith the Lord Almighty.”

If then, in the first book of Holy Scripture, the “Almighty God” tells of all sustaining power and grace for the pilgrim saint and stranger; the last book reveals God under the same title as all-consuming in wrath and judgment to the impenitent sinner (Rev. 19:15).

7. Lord of all the earth

This title is found twice in the book of Joshua, (chap. 3:11-13), and once in Zechariah 6:5. In taking possession of “all the earth,” of which Canaan was the earnest and Joshua a type of the Lord in the taking of the inheritance, God selected this easily understood and fitting title, and under it the people crossed the Jordan and undertook the conquest of the land. When, however, the highly favoured people would dare to connect God’s blessed name and presence with their evil and idolatry, God could but leave the earth, had no longer a home or throne in it; thus the glory (the Divine majesty and Divine presence) is witnessed by the prophet slowly passing away from Jerusalem to its native home (Ezek. 1-11). To have longer remained in the defiled temple (Ezek. 8) or sanctioned the iniquity of the throne, would have been to lower His character, deny Himself, and tarnish His glory as God; that were impossible. Governmental power, therefore, passed over from Jerusalem to Babylon, and from that important epoch we date “the times of the Gentiles” (Luke 21:24; Dan. 2). God could not sanction by His presence — although governmentally He might bless the power conferred upon the Gentiles — so long as His people were held in captivity by these powers, and the cities of Judah lay waste; hence, when the cause of Israel is again taken up, the title will be re-asserted (Rev. 11:4, compared with Zech. 4 and 6:5).

Nebuchadnezzar lauded the “God of heaven,” so also Daniel the prophet; but not the “Lord of all the earth,” that title only being taken up when Israel’s place of supremacy in the earth and amongst the nations is being made good. The central part of “The Revelation” is God’s assertion of His right and title to the earth; the consequence being days of wrath and terror upon man, especially upon apostate Judaism and Christendom. Such will be the fear which these judgments will inspire in the wicked, that they will haste to give glory to the “God of Heaven” (Rev. 11:13), but that is not the title expressive of the character of these awful days and times. Men will cheerfully own God’s title to heaven, His right to dwell and govern there, for, after all, that keeps God and man at a distance; but when He announces His settled purpose to take up again this earth, to wrest it from the power and grasp of Satan, men sternly refuse to own the title — “God of the earth.” So the storm of Divine judgment rolls on, the seals are broken, the trumpets are blown, and the vials are poured out, the thick black clouds break and burst, until those Christianized lands and guilty world are thoroughly swept by the besom of destruction, until too, the song from heaven breaks upon a joyous and redeemed creation: “The kingdoms of this world (or world-kingdom) are become the kingdoms of our Lord, and of His Christ; and He shall reign for ever and ever” (Rev. 11:15).

This, then, is a title which God did assert at the conquest of Canaan, and which He will establish by power in judgment after the day of grace is closed, and introductory to the setting up of the kingdom on earth.

8. God of heaven

We have about 20 instances of this interesting title in the Scriptures. It is only found twice in the New Testament, namely, in the Revelation; but it occurs eight times in the book of Ezra; this is to be carefully noted, for it is in this latter portion of the word to which we would refer as elucidating the force of the title “God of Heaven.”

The book of Ezra details the religious state of the returned remnants from Babylon. God most graciously permitted a considerable number of His people to return to the city and land of Immanuel, but they did so under Gentile permission and protection. When returned they got blessing from God, but not the presence of God. Governmental power was gifted to the Gentiles in the person of Nebuchadnezzar; the Divine presence was granted to the people, when owned in the land, before their scattering; while the Divine blessing rested abundantly on the work of the returned captives. In the five post-captivity books — Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi — the remnant is not once termed “My people,” save in distinct reference to the future. Yet this is the favourite expression of the earlier prophets, and found abundantly in the earlier books. The altar fire may, as of old, consume its victims; the priest may burn incense at the prescribed hours of worship; the appointed and consecrated feasts of Jehovah may be carefully observed according to the written Word; the new moons and free-will offerings of the people be duly accepted according to the ritual of Moses; the temple courts of the new-built House may resound with songs of praise; the fallen walls and palaces of Jerusalem be reared in something like former grandeur; the city gates, as of old, be opened and shut at their appointed seasons; but the presence of God — of Jehovah — was absent. The glory is departed from Israel. Their temple — beautiful and glorious — had no Ark, no golden Mercy-Seat, no golden Cherubim shadowing the Mercy-Seat, no Urim and Thummim; that which was the distinguishing glory of priest and temple — the Ark — had been removed or destroyed by the Chaldeans. Where was the cloud of glory, the well-known symbol of Jehovah’s majesty and presence? It had vacated its place between the Cherubim and retired into heaven at the epoch of the Babylonian attack upon Jerusalem, but will yet return and occupy the magnificent millennial Temple, filling it with glory (Ezek. 43). These sunny days and times are not far distant.

Thus we account for the frequency of this title in the book of Ezra. God was indeed caring for and watching over the remnants of His people, but He did so secretly and providentially, not, as before, actively interfering on their behalf from His Throne in Jerusalem in power, nor from His Temple in their midst in grace. The Throne of righteousness is now set up in the great Gentile metropolis, and the glory has left the House, hence the appropriateness of the title “God of Heaven.” God acts in and from heaven, not on earth, save providentially, yet directs and controls all for the blessing of His own. When He begins to act publicly on behalf of Israel, He will do so under His Joshua-title, “Lord of all the earth.”

The point now for faith to recognize is, that God is acting and directing, although unseen, for the present blessing of His own; and this He does, making His hand felt in the personal circumstances of life, as also in the governments and powers of the day. What a stay to the heart in the presence of evil and evil men: — “Be still, and know that I am God.” What then about the raging of men or the din of war? Cannot the restless and troubled heart repose on those calm and divinely blessed words, “Be still, and know that I am God”? Blessed Lord, repose the hearts and souls of Thy troubled saints in these and coming days of anxious dread!

The book of Esther, in which the name of God does not once occur, shows the secret actings of God, exercised through the Persian monarchy towards those of the people who, indifferent to Jehovah and His interests, preferred for gain and ease to remain in the land of captivity, instead of availing themselves of the edicts of Cyrus and Artaxerxes granting liberty. Thus the people outside the country of Canaan — careless and unbelieving, are watched over and protected by God Himself, but from heaven and secretly, for He cannot in their state own them publicly. In the post-captivity books, God is owned as the “God of Heaven,” and as such He acts.

The expression “Kingdom of heaven,” which occurs in the New Testament, and only in the Gospel of Matthew, about 30 times, has its root in Daniel 4; it is an important phrase in connection with the title “God of heaven.” This Divine, and to us exceedingly important, title covers all the period of time, from the scattering of Judah by the first imperial power, until God again takes up the cause of the Jew.

9. Father

The Divine revelation to the Patriarchs was as “God Almighty,” to Israel as “Jehovah,” while to Christians it is “Father” — the distinguishing New Testament title. The name occurs singly, or in conjunction with other titles, about 300 times in the New Testament Scriptures. It is worthy of notice, that Jesus only once directly addressed “God” as such (Matt. 27:46); He often spoke of God, but with the exception named, always directly addressed the “Father.” Of the many Divine names and titles, there is none more full of comfort or more touching to the heart, than that of “Father.” To the Christian, it is the expression of that peculiar relationship and measure of that blessed nearness, founded on accomplished redemption, and which every believer occupies. A Jew, however godly, could not directly address Jehovah as his “Father”; “Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear Him” (Psa. 103:13).

“Father” is the language of the babe in Christ (1 John 2:13); the cry of the Spirit in the believer (Rom. 8:15); it is a name which speaks of a love and relationship only fully known and enjoyed by the practically separated saint (1 John 2:15-16). In those loved chapters of John 13-17 — containing the dying instructions of Christ, and in which His mind is given us for consolation and profit during the whole period of this present interval of grace, the name “Father” with its pronouns occurs upwards of 100 times.

The prayer of glory is addressed to the God of Jesus Christ (Eph. 1:17-23); the prayer of love to the Father of Jesus Christ (Eph. 3:14-21). “Our Father” is not the language of Jesus and His disciples as some have supposed, but of the latter only, while “My Father” was spoken alone by Jesus. “My Father” and “your Father” (John 20:17), while maintaining the distinctive blessedness of the believer, yet as distinctly marks off the pre-eminent place of Jesus. All disciplinary dealing (Heb. 12:9-10), conduct and life (1 Peter 1:14-17), fellowship (1 John 1), and restoration of soul (1 John 2:1), are referred to the “Father.” It is also the Father’s care (Luke 12:30), love (John 16:27), grace (Matt. 5:45-48), goodness (Matt. 7:11), words (John 17:8) and testimony (John 17:14), which forms, stays and comforts the soul of the saint in his daily life. But while “Father” is the name which, perhaps, above all others, stirs the feelings and awakens the tenderest emotions of the heart, it must be borne in mind that the name is only fully declared after redemption had been accomplished, after the wrath of God had spent itself on Jesus on the cross. “I will declare Thy name unto my brethren” (Psa. 22:22), were the words of the Saviour ere He died, and soon after, raised from the dead by the glory of the Father, He commissions Mary of Magdala to announce to His brethren the new relationship, saying: — “I ascend unto My Father, and your Father; and to My God and your God” (John 20:17). The concluding verse of the Lord’s intercessory prayer for His own, “I have declared unto them Thy name, and will declare it” (John 17:26) refers to a past unfolding of His Father’s name as in John 20:17 (chapter 17 supposes the Lord already ascended to heaven), and a future declaring of that wondrous name now being accomplished by the Holy Spirit sent down from heaven.

10. Jesus

This precious name occurs nearly 700 times in the New Testament. Upwards of 600 of those instances will be found in the Gospels alone. In Mark and Luke, the name occurs about 100 times in each book; in Matthew about 170 times, and in John about 250 times; in the Acts, it is not of frequent occurrence, and in the Epistles about 30 times only. It is well worthy of careful notice that in no case has the Holy Spirit caused that ineffably sweet and precious name to be written with an adjective. “Jesus” needs no laboured description; no flourish of rhetoric, or tongue of man or angel to publish its glories. His dignities, His moral perfection, the varied glories of His person, ways, and works proclaim WHO and WHAT He is. The Christian should carefully avoid as really detracting from the worth of Jesus all such expressions as “Dear Jesus,” and in epistolary correspondence “In Jesus”; such language is not only unscriptural, but is exceedingly faulty, both in expression and thought. “In Jesus” (1 Thess. 4:14), should be “through Jesus.”

We account for the infrequent use of this peerless name in the Epistles, owing to the new position of Jesus as risen and exalted; there “Christ,” the title of the exalted and glorified man, is used upwards of 200 times, while, as already observed, “Jesus” only about 30 times. As the man amongst men, active in goodness and love, His Divine glory hid, He passed through the scene as the “Man of Sorrows,” and as the four Gospels give the records of that wondrous life, He is there called “Jesus,” His personal name as born into the world (Luke 1:31; Matt. 1:21); it told of reproach, suffering, and shame.

11. Christ

“Messiah” is a Hebrew word and “Christ” a Greek one, both meaning “Anointed,” as in (Psa. 2:2), thus, in the Gospels, where “Christ” occurs about 50 times, it is an official designation, and is usually written with the article prefixed as “the Christ.” Our very excellent version of the New Testament fails in numerous instances in conveying this title aright to English readers; the omission of the article is unhappy, as it obscures a vital part of the Lord’s testimony to the Jews. The Messiah — the burden of Old Testament Scriptures — had now come, and was presented for Jewish acceptance. Jesus — “the Christ” — offered Himself to Israel as the Saviour from sin and Deliverer from Gentile rule (Luke 1:67-79); but Israel knew not the day of her gracious visitation, so contrary was He to all Jewish expectation, although Psalm 22, 69, and Isaiah 53, might have prepared them for the advent of a suffering and rejected Messiah ere the kingdom and the glory could come. Jehovah will assuredly build up Zion; but atonement for sin on the cross must be the ground and basis, whether for blessing and glory, and whether for Jew or Gentile. Israel rejected Christ’s Messianic claims; and, as to the moral glory displayed in His person, works, and ways, their minds and hearts were blinded. Consequent upon His full and final rejection as King of Israel, as the Christ, the Anointed of Jehovah, our place and portion is now found in Israel’s rejected One, crowned and glorified in heaven, God is not in meantime pressing the Jewish claims of His beloved Son, that He will do soon, and then, not as before, contingent on Jewish or Gentile responsibility, but our God will work in the absoluteness of His own power for the glory of His Son as the Messiah in Judea, and also in the more comprehensive and broader title, “Son of Man,” on the earth. Christ’s new place as risen from the dead and glorified on high measures our place in the glory He has entered, and fixes our position before God; hence, in the Acts and Epistles where Christ’s place and ours are fully developed, “Christ” is not often written with the article prefixed. In the Gospels, as we have seen, it is an official title, and occurs about 50 times; in the Acts, His exaltation by God is the great point, and there the name occurs about 20 times; while in the Epistles, it is used upwards of 300 times, and, as defining our position before God. As the Church, we are united to Him in life, blessedness, glory, and future dominion of all things — over the works of God’s hands (Eph. 1:22-23; 1 Cor. 15, etc.); as saints, individually, we sit in heavenly places “in Him” (Eph. 1:3-5, etc.). We are not as Christians in position and standing before God in the first man at all; and we ought not to be down here according to practical life and ways. Christ risen from the dead is the head of God’s new creation, and source of life and new responsibility. Life and responsibility flow from connection with Adam or Christ, the first man of the earth, the second man heavenly. We as believers are “in Christ,” whether alive on the earth (2 Cor. 12:2) or dead (1 Cor. 15); thus, our position in the Divine presence is not only a fixed one and blessed beyond all that heart could conceive, but one against which the gates of “hell (hades) and death” are utterly powerless, because, founded on a life victorious over Satan and death.

12. Jesus Christ

This double title only occurs five or six times in the Gospels, but is frequently used by the Apostles Paul, Peter, and John in their epistles. Paul in his fourteen letters writes “Jesus Christ” about 66 times; Peter in his two Epistles about 12 Times; and John in his three Epistles, about 9 times. The lowly humbled man on the earth, Jesus, is now the exalted and glorified man in the heavens, Christ. What He was as “Jesus,” and what He is as “Christ” combined, give the force of this title. The sufferings of earth and the glories of heaven are thus wondrously linked in the divine order of the names “Jesus Christ.”

13. Christ Jesus

“Jesus Christ” is a title common enough in all the epistles, but “Christ Jesus” is almost wholly confined to Paul. Peter does not once use it in his first epistle, and in his second, only twice, while neither Jude in his short catholic letter, nor John in his three epistles and Revelation, writes “Christ Jesus” even once. These titles are penned with remarkable precision in the Scriptures, and to confound them is simply to rob our souls of blessing, and Christ of glory; this we cannot afford to do, and so depend upon it, beloved reader, that an exact acquaintance with the Spirit’s employment of these names and titles will yield no mean light or profit to thy soul. The apostles and writers of the New Testament were converted when Jesus was on earth, save Paul, whose first acquaintance with Christ was formed in the glory (Acts 9), hence they and he speak of Jesus as they knew Him. In this way we account for the rare occurrence of Paul’s favourite title, “Christ Jesus,” in other than the Pauline writings. Peter, John, and others first knowing Jesus on earth, speak and write of Him as “Jesus Christ”; while Paul first knowing Jesus in glory, uses the expressive title ‘Christ Jesus.’ It is not found at all in the Gospels.

The exalted man, the head and center of every glory — Christ, was once the deeply humbled man on earth — Jesus. Thus the glories on high are first known, and man in Christ in the presence of God, ere the sufferings of earth and Jesus our pattern in conflict and sorrow can be learned. In Philippians 2 and 3 I get first a humbled Christ (ch. 2), then a glorified Christ (ch. 3); but while this is so historically, it is not so doctrinally, for I must know Christ in the glory as an object and for power before I can walk as He walked. Thus ‘Jesus Christ’ would be chapters 2 and 3, while Christ Jesus would be chapters 3 and 2 in moral order. The first title would be what He was and what He is united; the second would be what He is and what He was combined.

14. Lord Jesus Christ

This is the full written title of our Lord, connecting His authority (Lord) with His manhood (Jesus) and glory (Christ). Thus His power is indissolubly linked with His humanity and present exaltation (Matt. 28:18). This title is found in all the introductory verses of the Pauline Epistles, save the Hebrews, and generally at the close also. In the introduction to 2 Timothy the title is slightly altered, but it occurs in the last verse of that Epistle. It is not once used by John in his three letters; in fact the word ‘Lord’ does not occur once in those epistles. If the thoughts given under each name are connected, the Scriptural force and value of this fullest of all the Lord’s New Testament titles will be readily perceived.

15. Son of God

This grand and Divine title is neither official nor dispensational, but one of personal and moral glory, and is only fully declared and unfolded in the writings of the Apostle John — the revealer of Divine mysteries, as Paul of heavenly secrets. John discloses a deeper glory than that which bears upon Judah, in her land or dispersed — that is Peter — or upon the twelve tribes of Israel, gathering in groups in their synagogues — that is James — or upon creation and the Church — that is Paul. The Divine and personal glory of Jesus Christ — ‘Son of God’ and ‘Son of the Father’ — is the wondrous theme of the Apostle of life and love.

‘Son of God’ occurs but once in the Old Testament (Dan. 3:25). The title is applied to Adam in Luke 3:38, as the expression of his place and dignity in creation. The angels too are styled “sons of God” (Job 2; 38:7, etc.), but no angel is ever termed ‘Son of God,’ much less ‘the Son of God.’ ‘Son’ is a title belonging to Christ by inherent right; it becomes ours only by adoption.

‘Son of God’ occurs in the Scriptures nearly 50 times, and is the expression of Christ’s personal dignity and glory. ‘Son of the Father’ occurs but once, and intimates the blessed relationship eternally subsisting between the Father and the Son. “Only begotten Son in the bosom of the Father” is but once written in Scripture, and is the declaration to us of the depth and tenderness of the love in which the Son ever abode with His Father. Dignity, relationship, and love are unfolded in those divine and exquisitely beautiful titles.

It is interesting to note that Luke connects Sonship with the incarnation of our Lord (Luke 1:35); Matthew with the calling out from Egypt (Matt. 2:15); Mark with the commencement of the Lord’s ministry (Mark 1:1); but John traces the Sonship of Jesus Christ before time began. “In the beginning was the word” (John 1:1) is a peculiar form of expression, and probably conveys the most exact and historical thought of eternity found in the Bible. “From the beginning” (1 John 1:1) refers to a specific event — the appearing of Christ as man in the world. “In the beginning was the Word” has no reference to either date or epoch. It is a truly remarkable phrase. Eternity, Personality, Deity, Coequality, and Creatorship are ascribed to Him who is the “Word” and the “Son,” and that within the brief compass of 42 words (John 1:1-3). In the Gospel of John we see the Son of God with the sinner; but in the Epistles of John we see the Son of the Father with the saint; in the former we are instructed in life, in the latter in love and fellowship.

“Son of the living God” (Matt. 16:16). It is upon the glory of Christ’s person thus divinely revealed by the Father to Peter that Christ builds His assembly. Paul too in accordance with the double ministry received of the Lord — the Gospel and the Church (Col. 1:23-26) — “straightway he preached Christ ... that He is the Son of God” (Acts 9:20). The Divine glory of that name and person formed the ground of all His Gospel and Church testimony. The Divine and Heavenly glory of the ‘Son’ is needed for Church foundation, Church blessing, and Church glory, and also as a basis, solid and imperishable, on which our individual salvation most surely reposes; these are in brief the subjects of the Pauline writings. The Divine glory of the ‘Son’ for the gathering, blessing, character and moral likeness of the family in the Father’s house, are the happy themes of John, who, himself reposing on the bosom of his Master knew something of the intimacies of the heart of God.

16. Son of Man

It is an interesting circumstance that while the title ‘Son of Man’ occurs in the Gospels upwards of 80 times it is only directly applied by the Lord to Himself. It is not even once applied by others to Him. Stephen, however, saw Jesus glorified in the heavens and addressed Him as ‘Son of Man,’ saying, “I see the heavens opened, and the Son of Man standing on the right hand of God” (Acts 7:56).

John in the Revelation twice uses the title, applying it to the Lord in both instances (Rev. 1:13; 14:14). Stephen and John are the only persons in the New Testament who apply the title ‘Son of Man’ to Jesus. There is but one occurrence of this title in the Epistles, and that one is a quotation from Psalm 8 (Heb. 2:6).

In the Old Testament ‘Son of Man’ is used of Ezekiel about 100 times; in Daniel it occurs three times, two of them being applied to the Prophet, and the third to the Messiah (Dan. 7:13). Like those two Old Testament prophets of the captivity — who found their sphere of ministry outside Israel not then recognized of God — Jesus ever applied this title to Himself consequent upon His rejection as ‘the Christ’ by Israel; it was a title He peculiarly delighted in and one which tells of His deep and abiding interest in man as such. Thus He oversteps the narrow and circumscribed limits of Judaism, and instead of a glory filling Immanuel’s land merely, the scene widens, for the dominion of the ‘Son of Man’ embraces the heavens and the earth, and instead of a glory skirting the coasts of Judea, the whole earth becomes lightened with His glory under this name and character. The glory of Messiah — King of Israel, is the subject of Psalm 2, but a scene more universal in extent, and even more grand in character is opened to view in Psalm 8 — a glory which He takes as ‘Son of Man,’ and one in which we share (Eph. 1:11). Universal dominion and absolute sovereignty are glories resting upon this exceedingly interesting title — one, moreover, in which every human being is concerned, for universal judgment and authority to execute that judgment are referred to the “Son of Man” (John 5, Acts 17:31). On the other hand, life and power to communicate that life are referred to His Divine title “Son of God” (John 5; 17:1-2). As “Son of Man” He comes in glory to Israel (Matt. 24:30), and to the Gentiles or living nations on the earth whom He gathers before His throne of glory (Matt. 25:31); then He will bring in universal blessing and righteous rule (Matt. 13:41).

Blessed Lord, bring in those happy days in Thine own time and in Thine own way!

17. Son of David

This title is found in the synoptic Gospels 14 times — in Matthew eight times, in Mark three times, in Luke three times; but is not once found in John. This title is more confined in its application than the broader and more comprehensive one ‘Son of Man’; the former has Judea as its range, and the Jews as its subjects of blessing; while the latter has earth as its sphere, and mankind as the subjects of its exercise.

God has been pleased to reveal Himself in four great relationships — first, to creation as God; second, to Israel as Jehovah; third, to the Patriarchs as God Almighty; fourth, to Christians as Father. There is also a fourfold revelation of the Sonship of our blessed Lord — first, as the ‘Son of God,’ title of personal and Divine Glory; second, as the ‘Son of the Father,’ expressing the ever-abiding relationship of the Son to the Father; third, as the ‘Son of Man,’ the righteous and gracious ruler over the millennial earth; fourth, as the ‘Son of David,’ the fulfiller of every glorious promise and prediction to the ancient people.

Feasts of Jehovah

The Feasts of Jehovah were seven in number (Lev. 23), and are termed in John’s Gospel “feasts of the Jews,” because there the moral rejection of the Lord is assumed from the commencement of the gospel (John 1:10-11).

1. The Sabbath — God’s eternal rest for man and creation (Heb. 3; 4).

2. The Passover — Redemption by blood, the foundation of all blessing and glory (1 Cor. 5:7).

3. The Feast of Unleavened Bread — Holiness of walk and life (1 Cor. 5:8).

4. The Feast of Weeks — Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit came down and formed the Church (Acts 2).

5. The Feast of Trumpets — Israel again summoned and gathered to her land and God (Psa. 81).

6. The Day of Atonement — Israel coming into the blessing of redemption (Zech. 12).

7. The Feast of Tabernacles — Millennial glory of Israel (Zech. 14:16).

Holy Bible

The Bible is all for the Christian, but not all about him. God in government, or Messiah and the Kingdom, might express the general character of the Old Testament, while God in grace, or Christ and the Church, would characterize the New Testament. Moses, by inspiration of God, opened the canon of divine revelation; Paul completed the subjects of which it treats (Col. 1:25); John closed it with the Revelation. This blessed book is assailed on every hand — its inspiration is openly denied, its Divine authority unblushingly called in question, and its heavenly doctrines made the sport of an unbelieving world. Yet its subjects are grand, momentous, and divine; its themes are heavenly and eternal. It is the Word of God, and therefore it liveth and abideth forever.

Its Title

The title, “The Holy Bible,” now everywhere happily accorded to the whole collection of the sacred writings, was first used in the middle of the fourth century. The titles “Old Testament” and “New Testament” were probably borrowed, the former from 2 Corinthians 3:14, and the latter from Matthew 26:28. These expressions originally contemplated the relationships in which the Jews and Christians stood before God — the former before, and the latter after, the work of the cross. They then came to be applied to the books in which these covenants were expressed, hence the “Old Testament” and “New Testament”.

Before the Holy Bible was spoken of as such, it was generally termed “The Scriptures,” or “The Holy Scriptures.” The Apostles Peter and Paul so speak of the sacred writings (2 Peter 3:16; 2 Tim. 3:15). Philo, a philosopher and very learned Jew residing at Alexandria, and Josephus, the Jewish historian, equally learned, especially in all matters pertaining to his nation, and residing at Jerusalem, were both unbelievers, but both regarded the Old Testament as of divine origin, terming it “The Sacred Scriptures”; both, moreover, were contemporaries, and flourished in the middle of the first century. Both these scholarly Jews cruelly tampered with the very writings which they regarded as holy; Philo allegorizing almost everything related in them and turning facts into fancies; while Josephus distorted facts and exaggerated whatever would tend to the exaltation of himself and the glory of his nation.

The Truth Gradually Unfolded

For a period of 4000 years and more, God at “sundry times and in divers manners” successively revealed His mind and will to man. This He did by revelations and communications, orally or otherwise delivered, from Adam to Moses; and then from Moses to the Apostle John (with an interregnum of about 500 years) in writing, thus fixing the truth and giving it a settled and definite form and character. What a mercy to hold in our hands not a, but the Word of God! What a blessing to know the absolute certainty of those things whereof we are fully assured!

From Adam to Noah we have a period of more than 1600 years; again, from Noah till Abraham there is a period of about 400 years, and from Abraham till Moses about 500 years. Now carefully observe the facts. Adam lived 930 years (Gen. 5:5), and only died about 56 years before Enoch was translated. Noah, too, could have enjoyed several years’ intercourse with Enoch. Thus the man “who walked with God” could have held the hand of Adam with one hand and that of Noah with the other. We thus bridge the first period of the world’s history, and certainly the truth could not have suffered in its transmission, as Enoch is commended for his walk, and Noah for his testimony (Heb. 11:5-7). Again, Shem, Noah’s second son, the then depository of the truth (Gen. 9:26), was contemporary with Abraham for nearly a century. Thus we have Shem in special relationship with Jehovah, spanning the second and eventful period from the flood till the gracious call of Abraham, to whom further revelations of the truth were made. A new deposit of the truth was committed to Abraham — “to Abraham and his seed were the promises made” (Gal. 3:16); and to each of the ‘Pilgrim Fathers’ of Israel God communicated His mind. Thus we are carried up almost to the days of Moses, when the duration of human life became so curtailed (Psa. 90:10) that it would be impossible to hand down the truth with the certainty that its purity would be maintained, as it would have to flow through so many channels.

Now we come to the written word, and here we would say that this form of communication exceeds by far any other mode of revelation whatever, “for Thou hast magnified Thy Word above all Thy name” (Psa. 138:2). The first mention of a ‘book’ or of ‘writing’ in the Bible is in Exodus 17:14. Moses began writing prior to the promulgation of the law. With certain intervals, the composition of the Old Testament extended through a period of about 1100 years, and was closed by the prophet Malachi. A few years after the death of Christ the books comprising the New Testament were begun with the Gospel of Matthew, and ere the first century of the Christian era closed, and before John the beloved apostle was taken to his Master, the whole of the New Testament was finished and in the hands and keeping of the Christian Church!

The Separate Books, Chapters, Verses, etc.

The first five books of Moses were originally written in one roll or book. The division into separate books and the titles of each are convenient for reference. They are very ancient, moreover, being arranged and titled in the Septuagint the same as in our Bibles. The two books of Samuel, the two books of Kings, and the two books of Chronicles were originally one book each. The separation of those three books into pairs is forced, and to some extent destroys the connection: it would have been better if the original arrangement had been adhered to and sectioned off for the English reader. The division of the Bible into chapters is comparatively a modern arrangement, and still more so into verses. Cardinal Hugo, who lived about the middle of the thirteenth century, proposed to himself the task of preparing a concordance for more easy reference to the Vulgate, the Latin version of the Bible. For this purpose he divided the whole into chapters, which were found so very useful that in all subsequent editions and versions they were incorporated. About two centuries afterward a learned Jewish Rabbi, Mordecai Nathan, in order to assist in the study of the Hebrew Bible, prepared a concordance, and in order probably to simplify his work, he divided the Old Testament into verses, adopting however Hugo’s division of chapters. In our English Bibles, therefore, and in all modern versions and translations, we have not only Cardinal Hugo’s chapters, but Rabbi Nathan’s verses as to the Old Testament. Until the middle of the sixteenth century the whole Bible was divided into chapters, and the Old Testament only into verses. Robert Stephens, the indefatigable French printer and Bible publisher, adopting the Cardinal’s chapters and the Rabbi’s Old Testament verses, took in hand the New Testament, and divided it into verses, and then published the whole complete about 1551. Some 15 or 16 years afterward an English Archbishop, Parker, undertook to publish the Bible in our own language, with all the chapters and verses. This edition is generally spoken of as the Bishop’s Bible. A little more than 40 years after the publication of the Bishop’s Bible, our own version as in present use appeared — one, no doubt, capable of critical improvement, but hallowed and endeared to the hearts of many thousands in this and past centuries. The postscripts attached to the epistles should be rejected. They are certainly, some of them at least, very ancient, but also very misleading, and the reader will be safe in rejecting them as they are the work of copyists.

The Languages in Which the Bible Was Written

The Bible was originally written in three languages, Hebrew, Syriac, and Greek. The whole of the New Testament was written in the Greek tongue. James wrote in it to the twelve scattered tribes of Israel, Peter to the Jews of the dispersion, and Paul to the Hebrews in Israel as well as to the Christians in the world’s metropolis — Rome.

The Old Testament was written in Hebrew — the oldest of known languages, and perhaps the primitive tongue of man — save certain small portions which God caused to be written in the Syriac language. The sublime strains of Isaiah, the weeping plaints of Jeremiah, and the abrupt, forcible, and striking style and imagery of Ezekiel, could only be fully expressed in Hebrew, the language of the heart, as Greek is that of the mind. The Phoenicians (whose country bordered the Mediterranean, and whose merchant navy carried the rich produce of Persia, Egypt, and even India, to far distant lands, and who are believed to have penetrated even to the coasts of Great Britain) spoke Hebrew. Thus, no doubt, some glimpses of the truth were carried to the heathen of the ancient world. Heber, the last of the fathers before the dispersion, and from whom the name ‘Hebrew’ is derived, is believed to have spoken the Hebrew tongue; if so, it was likely the original language of mankind. The seven nations of Canaan also spoke Hebrew, and Abraham, when he left Mesopotamia, forsook his mother tongue, the Syriac, for that of the Canaanite.

Hebrew died out as a spoken and written tongue soon after the Babylon-captivity. The mass of the people during their exile — 70 years — learned the language of their conquerors, and forgot their own, so that on the return of certain remnants to Jerusalem, the book of the law, which was read in Hebrew, had to be expounded in Syriac (Neh. 8).

About 280 years B.C. the Old Testament was translated into Greek, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt, who was desirous, not only of enriching the great Alexandrian library with a copy of the Jewish Scriptures, but also to put the Old Testament into Greek, the then current language, on behalf of the many thousands of Alexandrian Jews who knew nothing of Hebrew. The Alexandrian version of the Old Testament, or Septuagint, as it is generally termed, was in general use in Israel during the time of our Lord, and from it, He and the writers of the New Testament repeatedly quoted. The Hebrew text, however, is paramount as an authority, for the chief advantage of the Jews over all others consisted in this, “that to them were committed the oracles of God” (Rom. 3:2), and these written oracles were penned in Hebrew.

The other language used in the writing of the Old Testament is the Syriac, or more generally termed the ‘Aramean,’ from Aram, the Bible name of Syria (Gen. 10:22-23), sometimes also called, but erroneously, ‘Chaldean,’ that being a dialect peculiar to the learned in Babylon (Dan. 1:4). The Syriac was the tongue spoken by the Assyrians who destroyed the kingdom of Israel, and of the Babylonians who destroyed Judah. The several instances in which this language is used in the Old Testament are, first, Jeremiah 10:11 in which the triumphing heathen are abruptly informed that their gods are doomed to utter destruction; second, Ezra 4:8 to 6:18, and 7:12-26, in these portions the haughty Gentile conquerors of Judah are informed in their own language of Jehovah’s abiding interest in His people, although but weak and few in number, having just emerged from their long captivity; third, in Daniel 2:4 to the close of chapter 7, here the rise, progress, and total destruction of Gentile power, is divinely sketched, and thus they are left without excuse.

The Hebrew tongue, (Acts 26:14) and the various Hebrew words and expressions, such as in Mark 5:41; 7:34; 15:34 spoken by Christ; also John 5:2; Revelation 9:11, must not be understood to mean the original Hebrew language, but simply that then spoken by the Jews. In general, the Lord and the Apostles spoke the common tongue — Greek. The exceptions we have indicated, as also Paul’s address on the Castle stairs at Jerusalem (Acts 22) were in the Syriac tongue. The inscription affixed over the cross of Jesus was written in Greek, the language of the people, in Latin, the official language of the imperial power, and in Hebrew, the ecclesiastical tongue of the heads of Israel, this latter meaning the Aramean.

History of the Text of the New Testament

By the ‘text’ of the New Testament is meant the ‘copy’ from which a translation is made. Of course all the originals were manuscripts; and copies continued to be written till about A.D. 1440, when printing was invented.

The originals are all lost, but there are many manuscripts in existence, and any printed Testament must have been copied from one or more of those manuscripts, or have been produced by comparing few or many of the manuscripts and selecting what was supposed to have been written at the first.

In the numerous MSS of the Greek Testament it would perhaps be impossible to find two that were exactly alike. Thousands of the differences, however, are of comparatively little importance (except that we value the very words of Scripture), many of the discrepancies being the trivial errors of copyists. It has been estimated that the variations really worthy of notice and research represent only one-thousandth part of the whole New Testament.

In some few places it is difficult to tell what the original was; but God has so well guarded the manuscripts that not one of the fundamental truths of Christianity is in the slightest degree made uncertain, or in any way questionable.

At first the material on which books were written was papyrus, which was of so frail a nature that only small portions of the Scriptures have come down to these days. Parchment was afterward used, and this was much more lasting. It is held that both these materials are alluded to by Paul in ‘the books’ and ‘parchments’ in 2 Timothy 4:13.

It is from the fourth century that the earliest Greek copies in existence date, and this leaves unrepresented a long period from the time when the books were written. This, however, is partially bridged over by the oldest of the Syriac and Old Latin translations, which date about the second century, and represent what was in the Greek copies from which those translations were made.

To judge of the age of a manuscript the material on which it is written is not the only guide, the style of writing also comes to our aid. The earliest copies were written all in capital letters (called uncial, from uncia, an inch; though the letters are much smaller than an inch, some of the initial letters may approach that size), whereas later ones were written in cursive, or running hand.

The words were also all joined together without any spaces between them, and with few if any points. Words were also at times divided at the end of a line without any regard to syllables. It is easy to see that mistakes might occur in copying such when the words were divided: as, for instance in English, the word ‘nowhere’ was once mistaken for ‘now here.’

An instance of the wrong division of the letters occurs in 2 Thessalonians 2:13, where a letter is also changed through perhaps being indistinct,

ΛΠ’ ΛΡΧΗΣ from [the] beginning

ΑΠΑΡΧΗΝ [the] first-fruits.

The latter is found in many manuscripts, and was chosen by Lachmann; but the former is without doubt the correct reading.

Another source of error was the practice of contracting the words: thus instead of KΥΡΙΟΣ, Lord, only KΣ would be written, a line being placed over the letters to show that it was a contraction. The faint line at the top might become invisible in time, and lead to mistakes. An important passage will exemplify this. In 1 Timothy 3:16 occur the words, “God was manifested in the flesh.” Here the word ΘΕΟΣ for ‘God’ was contracted into ΘΣ, but in two of the principal manuscripts (now known as A and C) it cannot be told whether or not it was originally as above, or

ΟΣ, ‘who’―’who was manifest in the flesh.’

Among the variations caused by the copyists there is a class of errors called Homoearkton, or ‘similar beginnings’; that is, when two or more lines or clauses begin with the same letters, the eye in copying is apt to skip from one to the other. Thus in Hebrews 2:13 there are two clauses commencing with καί πάλιν, ‘and again’; two manuscripts omit all between these words, the eye having wandered from the first to the second.

On the other hand there are errors called Homoeoteleuton, ‘similar endings’; that is, when two lines or clauses end with the same word, the eye is apt to pass from one to the other, and omit the words intervening.

Another difficulty experienced in deciphering the manuscripts is the many corrections or additions that have been made. Of course the original scribe may have discovered that he had made a mistake, and then corrected the manuscript either by writing between the lines or in the margin; but now it is difficult to tell whether such is really the case, or whether the alteration was by a later hand. Tischendorf judged that the Codex Sinaiticus had passed through ten different hands. Editors (those who have attempted to discover what the text was originally) distinguish as far as possible between the ‘hands’ that have corrected a MSS. Thus A ‘primâ manu’ (or Ap.m. or A¹) points out the first corrector; A ‘secundâ manu ‘ (or As.m. or A2) the second corrector, and so forth. A¹ may or may not be the original scribe. We give a facsimile of this Codex. It is John 6:14-15.

As nearly as may be, it would stand thus in English without the corrections.

HEDIDASIGNThEy
SAID THISIS
TLULYTHEPRO
PHETWHOINTOTHEwoRl
ISCOMING.
JsTHEREFOREKNOWINGTHAT
THEYWEREABOUTTo
COME ANDSEiZE
HIMANDTOPRO
CLAIMKING
ESCAPESAGAININTOtHe
MOUNTAINALONEHIMSElf.

In course of time parchment began to be scarce, and in some instances copies of the New Testament were rubbed out, and something else written on the parchment. In some of such the original reading can be deciphered by using chemicals. These manuscripts are called rescripts, ‘written again,’ or palimpsests, ‘scratched or scraped again.’ We give a specimen.

It is from the Codex Nitriensis, now in the British Museum, which contains large portions of Luke’s Gospel. The leaves have been folded in half, and have been covered over by a Syriac treatise of Severus of Antioch of no importance. The above is a portion of Luke 20:9-10.

No doubt some of the errors have been made with the idea of improvement, such as making one Gospel to agree with another. Quotations from the Old Testament into the New are at times added to or altered. The New Testament was also divided into sections to be read in the assemblies. If a portion commenced with “He said,” it would be altered perhaps to “Jesus said.” Such portions of scripture were called Lectionaries, or readings.

It will be seen by the foregoing that it is no easy matter to ascertain in every place what was the original reading; and it is certainly not a work for which many are qualified. The witnesses to be examined are:

(1.) The Greek Manuscripts themselves, both uncial and cursive, giving each and all their true weight: some of these are Lectionaries.

(2.) Versions, early translations of the Greek into various languages.

(3.) The Fathers. Their writings show what was in the copies of the New Testaments from which they quoted. A list of the principal of these three authorities will be found in “Our Father’s Will,” and a fuller list in the New Translation of the New Testament by J. N. Darby.

Canon of the New Testament

Happily very few Christians are in any way troubled respecting the Canon of the New Testament. The term ‘Canon’ in Greek and Latin signifies ‘a rule or standard by which other things are tried.’ Paul uses it in this sense in Galatians 6:16 and Philippians 3:16. As applied to the books of Scripture it is used to signify a true and complete list. Such a list will test and detect all that are not true. We call such books canonical in opposition to others which are apocryphal or spurious.

If the questions were asked, How do we know that we have all the inspired books intended by God to form the New Testament? and how do we know that all the books we have are inspired? very few would be able to give any other answer than that they believe God has taken care that we should have all, and none but His own.

If the same questions were asked of an intelligent Roman Catholic he would say that he relies on what his church teaches; but, as is well known, that church admits the books known as the O.T. Apocrypha. As to the N.T. the church universally has for centuries acknowledged the same books, and those only. This is well, but may we not say that doubtless God not only caused the Canon to be settled as it is, but has caused His people in all sections of the church to receive the same. It is a false principle that the church settles what is, and what is not Scripture, if even it could give a unanimous voice. It is only the depository and guardian of the Scriptures. The Word of God authenticates itself to the heart and conscience in the power of the Holy Spirit — the same Spirit who inspired the men who wrote the books — and the Christian is sensible of its completeness. People may say, ‘O you must prove it.’ The proof is in the tasting of the sweetness and completeness of the Word. Because none can prove that sugar is sweet, that not does affect the fact that it is sweet, and those that taste it know for themselves. So it is with the Holy Scriptures.

Printed Greek Testaments

We name the principal of these, especially those which are occasionally referred to by modern Editors.

1. The Complutensian Edition. This was the earliest printed Greek Testament. It was edited by Cardinal Ximenes, Archbishop of Toledo, in connection with his University at Alcala (Complutum), whence its name. It was not published till 1522.

2. The Editions of Erasmus. His first edition was published in 1516. It was hastily compiled, but subsequently he issued five Editions.

3. The Editions of Stephens. His first edition was published in 1546. His third Edition (1550) has often been reprinted in this country. In his fourth Edition (1551) he divided the text into verses.

4. The Editions of Beza. His first Edition was in 1565. He mostly copied from that of Stephens, 1550.

5. The Elzevir Editions. These date 1624 and 1633. In the second Edition the text is professedly the text received by all, and hence the title of the ‘Textus Receptus.’ This Edition has often been reprinted on the continent. In the main it agrees with Stephens, 1550. Both of these have often been referred to as ‘the received text.’

6. Mill’s and Bengel’s followed; but are now seldom referred to.

7. Wetstein. Published in 1751-2. His principal work was collecting material.

8. Griesbach. After Bengel, Griesbach was the first to arrange the manuscripts in families or groups, putting together those that appeared to be copies of some one manuscript. He called one group Alexandrian, and another Western, and another Byzantine. He was also the first to alter the received text where he thought it erroneous. He also gave some readings as ‘very probable,’ or ‘probable.’ His principal Edition (his second) was published in 1796-1806, and his manual Edition in 1805.

11. Scholz. Published in 1830-36. His chief work was collating additional manuscripts.

12. Lachmann. His principal edition was published in 1842-50. He was perhaps the first to set wholly aside the ‘received text,’ and edit an independent text from available manuscripts.

13. Tischendorf. He spent more than thirty years in collecting materials and editing works bearing on the Scriptures. His seventh edition was published in 1856-9, and his eighth in 1865-72. He gives a pretty full list of evidence both for and against any reading adopted.

14. Tregelles. This editor also spent some thirty years in examining manuscripts, etc. The Gospels appeared in 1857, and the Revelation in 1872. He confined his attention almost exclusively to the few most ancient copies.

15. Alford. With his Commentary he gave a Greek text. He mostly agrees with Lachmann, Tischendorf and Tregelles.

16. Wordsworth. This writer also gave a Greek text with his Commentary. He was more conservative than other modern editors, for he believed that God had over-ruled the common text, and that this should not be departed from except on good authority. He therefore retained many readings which were rejected by Lachmann, Tischendorf, Tregelles and Alford.

17. Westcott and Hort. These editors adopted an intricate system in forming their text, and may perhaps be said to be the very reverse of Wordsworth, and are considered by some to have been somewhat rash in their alterations. 1881.

18. The Revisers. Though these did not edit a Greek text, their work shows what readings they adopted. 1881.

Many readings may also be gathered from the New Translation of the New Testament by J. N. Darby, though he never edited a Greek text.

The reader will, perhaps, desire to know what good use can now be made of all this labour bestowed upon the Greek text. Though all the Editors have aimed at restoring the text to the original writing, each Editor has adopted his own line of working out this object. Some devoted their attention to the older copies only; others weighed all. The only guide we know of is that where all the Editors, say from Lachmann onwards, agree on a reading, it may safely be taken as the one to be adopted in preference to the received text. But, of course, readings in which not quite all agree may often be the right.

The readings in Greek and English from Griesbach to Wordsworth may be found in the notes to the “Englishman’s Greek Testament” (Bagster); and from Griesbach to the Revisers in a Concordance of Various Readings added to the “Englishman’s Greek Concordance” (Bagster).

Authorized Version of 1611

A few words may be deemed desirable as to the Greek text used in the Authorized Version. It has often been supposed that this agrees exactly with the ‘Textus Receptus’ of Stephens, 1550, or the Elzevir of 1624; but this needs a little modifying.

The original preface of 1611 does not say what Greek text was to be followed: indeed the then existing published texts differed but little. As to date it came between the Editions of Beza and those of Elzevir, and mostly agrees with the text of Stephens, 1550. Modern Editions of the Authorized Version do not strictly follow the original of 1611, and it is curious to find that the translators in a few places followed neither Stephens nor Beza. The Bishops’ Bible was published in 1568.

Matt. 2:11. A.V. ‘they saw,’ with Complutensian and the Bishops’ Bible. St. and Beza have ‘they found.’ Stephens had ‘saw’ in the margin, and this is confirmed by modern editors.

Matt. 9:18. A.V. ‘a certain ruler,’ with Comp. and Vulgate. St. and Beza omit ‘certain.’ The moderns are divided as to its insertion.

Matt. 10:10. A.V. ‘staves,’ with Comp. St. and Beza, ‘staff.’

Mark 5:38. A.V. ‘and them that wept,’ with Erasmus and Vulgate. St. and Beza omit ‘and.’ It should be added.

Mark 9:42. A.V. had ‘these little ones,’ with Comp. and Vulgate, but modern editions have ‘these little ones.’ St. and Beza omit ‘these.’

Mark 15:3. A.V. ‘but He answered nothing,’ with Comp. Stephens 1546, 1549, and Bishops’. But St. 1550, Beza, and modern Editors omit the words.

Luke 12:56. A.V. ‘of the sky and of the earth,’ with Comp. and Vulgate. St. and Beza, ‘of the earth and of the sky,’ with all modern Editors.

Luke 20:31. A.V. ‘the seven also, and left,’ with Erasmus and Bishops’. St. and Beza, ‘the seven also left,’ with modern Editors.

John 8:6. A.V. with Comp. and Stephens 1546, 1549, had ‘as though He heard them not,’ in ordinary type; but put in italics in 1769. St. 1550 and Beza omit.

Acts 8:13. A.V. ‘miracles and signs,’ with Erasmus and Bishops’. St. and Beza, with modern Editors, ‘signs and miracles.’

Acts 27:29. A.V. ‘we should have fallen,’ with Comp. and Vulgate, and modern Editors. St. and Beza, ‘they should have fallen.’

Eph. 6:24. A.V. omit ‘Amen,’ with St. Beza, Vulgate, and most modern Editors, but it is added in the A.V. in later Editions.

2 Tim. 1:18. A.V. ‘he ministered unto me,’ with the Vulgate and Bishops’. St. and Beza, with all Editors, omit ‘unto me.’

1 John 3:16. A.V. had ‘love of God,’ with Comp. and Vulgate, but afterward printed ‘love of God.’ St. and Beza, with all Editors, omit ‘of God.’

Jude 12. A.V. ‘Feast with you,’ with Comp. and Bishops’, St. and Beza, with all Editors, omit ‘with you.’

Rev. 18:1. A.V. ‘another angel,’ with Comp. Erasmus, and modern Editors. St. and Beza omit ‘another.’

Rev. 18:5. A.V. ‘have reached,’ with Comp. and modern Editors. St. and Beza read ‘followed.’ For fuller particulars as to the text of the N.T. the reader is referred to “Our Father’s Will,” by the publishers of the Revised Version.)

The Revised Version

Many manuscripts have been discovered and examined by Editors since the Authorized Version of 1611; and when the Committee of Revisers undertook a new translation they also had to determine what Greek text they should follow: in other words they had to determine what they should translate, before they could settle how to translate it.

For the first question they had a rule laid down for them, namely, “To introduce as few alterations as possible into the Text of the Authorized Version consistently with faithfulness.” But they have been openly charged with entirely disregarding this rule. They were also bound by one of their rules to note in the margin all the alterations of the text which they adopted; but this they in no way carried out. Of course in many cases the alterations of the text are what all modern editors are agreed upon, and how much safer it would have been to have followed such a rule.

Another thing to be lamented is the many places in the margin where they throw needless uncertainty upon the text by such remarks as “many ancient authorities read” something different.

As to the translation itself, there can be no doubt that in many places the revised version is for the better; but many persons competent to judge have not been slow to denounce it as on the whole unworthy to represent what God caused to be written as His Word, and one of sound judgment has said he believes that no person could habitually use the Revised Version without damaging his soul.

Holy Land

Israel is not the most ancient, but it is by far the most memorable of all lands, as Jerusalem, its capital, is the most renowned of all cities, and its people the most interesting of all nations. Here in the promised land the pilgrim fathers of Israel wandered, lived, and died — traversing the country from its northern limit to its southern entrance. This, too, was the goodly land which Moses longed to enter, but which he was only permitted to see, its glories being exhibited to him by its Creator and Beautifier. Into the Holy Land Jehovah led His redeemed host through the dry bed of Jordan. The impetuous torrent was driven back, and stood silent at the presence of the God of Jacob (Psa. 114). What a land of cloud and sky, of darkness and light — a land of abounding evil, and yet of super-abounding grace. What miracles, moral and physical, have been witnessed in the land of Canaan. Here Samson, the Nazarite judge, displayed his strength and personal prowess against the war-like Philistines. David, too, the warrior king of Israel, performed those wonderful exploits which were not only celebrated by the maidens of Judah, but which have been rehearsed in song and story ever since, and his strange eventful life written in tablets which will never perish. Here, too, reigned Solomon, whose glory and wealth, whose wisdom and power were world-wide, and even formed the subject of converse and inquiry in far-distant courts and lands. Here were the sovereigns of Judah and Israel interred, some of whom await the blast of the trump to rise and enter a glory prepared for them by David’s Son and Lord; while others, alas! will answer to the voice of Christ at the close of the future earthly era of blessing, and will come forth to the “resurrection of damnation.” The pen of the historian and the pencil of the artist have made us familiar with the scenes where Isaiah uttered his grand and comprehensive prophecies, which fill the soul with their grandeur, and which sweep the whole range and extent of the Divine purposes as to the future. Here, too, the weeping prophet, Jeremiah, poured out his lamentations, and for three-and-twenty years ceased not to warn the Judah part of the nation of near judgment. John the Baptist also lifted up his solitary voice in this land, preparing a people for the Messiah and His kingdom. But surely all is eclipsed by the brighter light which shone upon Zion when Jehovah-Jesus entered His country and visited His people. What an undying interest attaches to those cities and towns trod by the feet of the Son of God.

“Thou land of the cross and the glory,

Whose brightness at last will shine

Afar through the earth — What a story

Of darkness and light is thine.”

Israel was anciently regarded as occupying the center of the known world, and certainly its geographical situation is somewhat remarkable. Jerusalem at least occupies a central position in midst of the inhabited world, for “thus saith the Lord God; This is Jerusalem: I have set it in the midst of the nations and countries that are round about her” (Ezek. 5:5). Israel is protected on the north by the Lebanon range of mountains, the summits of which are almost perpetually capped with snow; on the west it is washed by the waters of the Mediterranean; on the south lies Egypt and adjoining desert, the scene of the forty years’ wanderings; while on the east from the Jordan stretches out the great Arabian desert to the Euphrates, a distance of about 300 miles. It is difficult to give the exact length of the country in miles, as geographers considerably differ in defining the limits of the land from north to south, and even from west to east; but it has been computed that its extreme length is from 140 to 150 miles or thereby, having an average breadth of about 40 miles, but in some extreme points it is about double that. If the territory east of the Jordan, occupied by the two tribes and a half, be embraced, then the land of Canaan would nearly cover 20,000 square miles.

During the time of our Lord the whole country was divided into three parts, the northern one being Galilee (the intellectual), the middle province being Samaria (the defiled), while the southern portion was Judea (the religious). In the glorious reign of Solomon the country rivalled all the kingdoms of the earth for grandeur. Its population was immense (1 Kings 3:8), its social prosperity great (1 Kings 4:20), its commerce successful and extensive (1 Kings 9:26-28). The treasures and rarities of India were imported into Canaan by a regularly established merchant navy (1 Kings 10:22), and gold and silver were so abundant that the latter was “nothing accounted of” in these palmy days (1 Kings 10:21). Soon, however, the fine gold became dim, for what is the glory of man but the flower of grass which withereth and perisheth in a day. Solomon’s sins are recounted in 1 Kings 11, as also the Divine threat to rend the kingdom in twain (1 Kings 11:12-13), which was fulfilled on the accession of his son Rehoboam (1 Kings 12). Thenceforth, within the limits of the hitherto undivided kingdom, two independent monarchies were established, respectively known as the kingdom of Israel, or ten-tribed kingdom, first Tirzah, afterwards Samaria, being the capital; and second, the kingdom of Judah, or tribes of Judah and Benjamin, Jerusalem being as formerly the capital.

The former possession of Canaan was entered upon, held for a brief period, and lost on the ground of the people’s obedience (see book of Deuteronomy where the principle is fully stated), but the future entrance into Canaan and lasting possession of the country will be solely on the ground of sovereign grace and unconditional promise made to Abram and the fathers. Thus the future Israel will stretch from the Nile on the west, across the great Arabian desert till the Euphrates on the east; its northern boundary, too, will be somewhat enlarged (Gen. 15:18; Ezek. 48). This we suppose will increase the country to about three times its present size, if not more. We do not see that a future return of the Jews to their land in unbelief and by the aid of an unnamed maritime power (Isa. 18); the greatly increased size of the country as already pointed out; the regular settlement of the tribes after their national conversion, and orderly arrangement in parallel bands across the breadth of the country from west to east — from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates (Ezek. 48), and the erection of a magnificent temple, constructed according to Divine plan, and of immense size, so as to form an house of prayer for “all people,” are statements to be set aside by any system of allegory or figure. Most certainly, no past fulfilment of them can be adduced, and we are convinced, that the more carefully the prophetic Scriptures are read, and their connection with Israel seen, that their future and literal fulfilment must be admitted by all candid and reflecting minds.

The names by which Israel is spoken of are as follows: —

1. Canaan, Lev. 14:34;

2. Palestine, so named by the ancients;

3. The Holy Land, Zech. 2:12;

4. The Lord’s Land, Hos. 9:3;

5. Thy Land, O Immanuel, Isa. 8:8;

6. Land of Israel, 1 Sam. 13:19;

7. Land of the Hebrews, Gen. 40:15;

8. Land of Judah, Isa. 26:1;

9. Land of Promise, Heb. 11:9;

10. The Pleasant Land, Dan. 8:9.

Holy Land - Physical Features

The land of Israel is called by God “The Land of Promise” (Heb. 11:9), and “The Holy Land” (Zech. 2:12), and in Deuteronomy 11:12 it is said to be “a land which the Lord thy God careth for: the eyes of the Lord thy God are always upon it, from the beginning of the year even unto the end of the year.” This, coupled with the facts that it was there that the principal events recorded in the Old Testament took place, there that the Lord Jesus when He became man was born, lived, suffered, and died — together with the prophecy that this land is yet to be restored to God’s ancient people Israel, and to be visited again by the Lord Jesus — invests it with peculiar interest to those who have been drawn by His love, and who are naturally interested in all with which He is concerned, whether it be past, present, or future. It is also called in Scripture “the land of Canaan,” “the land of Israel,” and “the land of the Hebrews.”

The Land of Israel is peculiarly isolated, though joined to land on three of its sides. On the west is the Great Sea, or the Mediterranean, with no ports of any moment, Jaffa (Joppa) being the best, and this cannot always be used. On the east is the great desert, separating it from Persia. On the south, a desert also separates it from Egypt. On the north are the mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, with a huge gateway between.

It is not easy to fix on a precise boundary north and south. If we reckon from Dan (33° 15' N.) to Beersheba (31° 14' N.) it would embrace a distance of about 139 miles, and in extent it has been compared to the size of the principality of Wales.

The promise to Abraham was, “Unto thy seed have I given this land, from the river of Egypt unto the great river, the river Euphrates” (Gen. 15:18). The word for ‘river’ in this passage is different from that employed in other places for the ‘river’ of Egypt, and seems here to point to the Nile, and may refer to its most eastern mouth (Pelusiac). In other passages the word used signifies a torrent which is often dry in summer, and is generally thought to refer to a stream some 70 miles east of the Pelusiac mouth, at Rhinocolura, and now called El Arish. It will be seen that these boundaries lie on the extreme south-west and north-east, and do not refer to the southern part of the river Euphrates. This promise extends much farther north than Dan; and we find of Solomon it is said, “He had dominion over all the region on this side the river, from Tiphsah even to Azzah, over all the kings on this side the river” (1 Kings 4:24). Tiphsah is placed in the maps on the river Euphrates (about 35° 50' N.), and Azzah is supposed to be Gaza in the south, so that Solomon reigned over nearly all the land promised to Abraham.

In examining the extent of the land to be possessed in the restoration of Israel, it will be seen in Ezekiel 47:15-16, that the northern limit is the same as was possessed under Joshua (see Num. 34:8-9). The Jordan will be the limit on the east (Ezek. 47:18). The south border will be from “Tamar ... to the waters of strife in Kadesh, the river [or valley] to the great sea,” the Mediterranean being the western border. From Jerusalem northward there will be a portion of the land called the “holy oblation” {described under Jerusalem}.

In the gospel history three divisions of the land are often referred to. (1) Judaea, in the south; (2) Samaria, in the center; and (3) Galilee, in the north. A person in Judaea wishing to travel to Galilee ‘must needs’ go through Samaria (John 4:3-4), though he could avoid Samaria by crossing the Jordan twice. The Lord, as He ‘went about,’ was mostly in Galilee, travelling throughout the district again and again, making Capernaum a sort of center. As far as is recorded, the most northern part He reached was “the coasts of Tyre and Sidon” (Matt. 15:21). The most southern was Bethany.

The whole country is singularly diversified, being a “land of hills and valleys,” as declared by Moses (Deut. 11:11). In its main features it may be said to be divided into four strips of country (with more or less deviation) running north and south. The land bordered by the Mediterranean is a plain, varying from about four miles wide in the north to about twenty miles in the south. This lowland is crossed by a ridge of Mount Carmel, which runs in a north-west direction from the mountains of Samaria for twelve miles, varying from 600 to 1,700 feet in height, and terminates by a promontory near the sea.

Alongside of this plain on the east runs a wide ridge of highland and hills; twenty to thirty miles in breadth. It stretches from the sides of Lebanon, and rises into the hills of Galilee. It is broken by a plain at Esdraelon (called the Valley of Jezreel and the Valley of Megiddo in the Old Testament), in the south-west of Galilee, but rises again into the hills of Samaria, and continues until it finally declines into the desert south of Beersheba. In this range of highlands are several mountains: and also some of the principal cities, including Jerusalem, the highest point of which is 2,593 feet; Bethel, 2,890; Hebron, 3,040; and Beersheba, 788 feet above the sea.

To the east of this range of hills lies the valley of the Jordan, in which is also the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. From the Sea of Galilee southward it is called the Ghor. This valley north of Huleh is five miles wide. From Huleh to the Sea of Galilee it is less, more like an ordinary ravine. From the Sea of Galilee it widens, some of it being seven miles wide, and the hills are almost perpendicular. It widens to twelve miles before it reaches the Dead Sea.

The land to the east beyond the Jordan is another range of high land and hills, some of which are 3,000 feet high. They decline into the Arabian desert.

From the above it is easy to see what is meant by ‘the hill country’ in Luke 1:39,65, though it is not known where Elizabeth resided.

It also explains what has been thought a difficulty, that in Matthew 5:1 our Lord is said to have gone up into a mountain; but in Luke 6:17 (which may be linked with Luke 6:20-49) that “He came down with them, and stood in the plain.” Where there are ranges of hills and mountains there are several plains on the mountains, and thus if our Lord had been higher up the mountain, and came down to where there was a plain, He would still be on the mountain, according to Matthew. There is hardly a hill-top on which there are not ruins of some city or fortress.

The Wilderness or Desert

The parts thus called in the New Testament are mainly (1.) the desert on the east of Jordan, extending north and south. This was where John was baptizing, which is said to be “in Bethabara beyond Jordan” (John 1:28); but ‘Bethany’ is read by nearly all editors instead of Bethabara. There is no record of any Bethany on the east of the Jordan: Origen says there was a Bethabara in his days. Neither can now be identified.

The Lord was led into the wilderness to be tempted of the devil, but where is not specified. On one occasion He retired into the desert east of the Jordan in the north, having reached it by ship. It is associated with Bethsaida Julias, situated a short distance from the north-east corner of the Lake of Gennesaret. This well accords with the fact that the people followed Him ‘on foot,’ which they could do by walking round the end of the lake (Matt. 14:13; Luke 9:10). It was here that our Lord fed the five thousand. There is also a Bethsaida on the west of the lake.

It is probable that the Lord on His last visit to Jerusalem, did not pass through Samaria, but crossed the Jordan at a ford near Salim, or farther south, and passed through the desert on the east, till He came to the ford (see Matt. 19:1; Mark 10:1). Luke 17:11 presents a difficulty, if it refers to the same journey to Jerusalem; but competent scholars translate it to mean that the Lord passed ‘between Samaria and Galilee’ on His way to the Jordan. To say that our Lord passed through Samaria and Galilee on His way to Jerusalem would be unnatural; for the road led through Galilee and then through Samaria; but our Lord was in Galilee, therefore to say simply that he passed through Samaria would have been sufficient. In Luke 19:1 we read that Jesus “entered and passed through Jericho,” which would be His due course to Jerusalem.

(2.) The desert of Judaea. This is situated west of the Dead Sea. It may perhaps be said to extend farther north, for in John 11:54 we read that the Lord retired to Ephraim, ‘near to the wilderness.’ This city is placed on the maps to the north-east of Jerusalem.

These deserts are not like the sandy deserts of Africa, but have for the most part a thin vegetation, with things of larger growth here and there, especially where springs are found.

The Jordan

As the land of Judaea is, with its many features in so small a compass, like no other land, so the river Jordan is like no other river. The great fall from its level at its source to the Dead Sea has been a matter of surprise, and was for long scarcely believed. The Hebrew word for the Jordan (Yarden) is translated ‘the Descender,’ which well agrees with its character.

The sources of the river are traced to three fountains. The highest is at Hasbany, some 1,700 feet above the level of the sea. It is twelve miles north of Tell-el-Kady (33° 15' N.) The second is a fountain near the ruins of Banias, the ancient Caesarea-Philippi, about four miles east of Tell-el-Kady. This source is 1,147 feet high, and supplies about twice as much water as that of Hasbany. The third fountain is near Tell-el-Kady, and is called Leddan, 647 feet high; it is believed to be near where the city of Dan stood. This stream supplies more than double the water that Banias gives.

The three streams unite and run nearly due south, with which some small streamlets unite, and at length form a large morass, and from thence, about 100 feet wide, it falls into the lake of Huleh. It has been estimated to be 7 feet above the level of the sea.

The Jordan leaves the southern point of the lake in a stream of about 100 feet wide, with a course not very rapid. It runs thus for about two miles, where is a bridge, called ‘The Bridge of Jacob’s Daughters,’ over which for ages travellers have passed in going from the south to Damascus. Soon after this the banks contract, and the stream rushes violently down its rocky bed until about three miles from the Lake of Gennesaret, where its course is more gentle. The distance from lake to lake is about ten miles, but its windings increase the waterway to about thirteen miles. The Lake of Gennesaret is about 682 feet below the level of the sea; so that the fall in the short distance of 13 miles is 689 feet.

The river leaves the Lake of Gennesaret on the south, and from thence to the Dead Sea is the Jordan of the New Testament. The river is about 100 feet wide on leaving the lake, and soon passes the remains of a Roman bridge. Some seven miles from the lake is a bridge called Jisr-el-Mejamia, over which a road passes from the south-west to the north-east. The river here is deep and rapid. Some fifteen miles farther south is an island which divides the river, and where the river is often fordable.

Much farther south the stream or river Jabbok runs into the Jordan, and from thence the river descends more rapidly. Its width varies from 80 to 150 feet, and on approaching the Dead Sea is about three feet deep. The Lake of Gennesaret is estimated to be 682 feet below the level of the sea, and the Dead Sea about 1,300 feet. This fall is not so great for 60 miles, and the course of the river is so tortuous that the entire water-way has been estimated to be nearly 200 miles.

There are a few fords across the Jordan, at which places the river has been well frequented for centuries: but in some parts it has been until lately all but unknown. Under ordinary circumstances the rapids make it quite unnavigable.

The Lakes

There are four lakes in Israel. The most northern is Lake Phiala, about five miles east of Banias (33° 15' N.) It is nearly round, and about a mile in diameter, as if it occupied the place of an extinct volcano. It appears to have no outlet, and has no connection with the sources of the Jordan, as was at one time supposed. It lies about 3,300 feet above the level of the sea.

2. Lake Huleh, about twelve miles south of Banias. The Jordan runs through it, as we have seen. It is in shape somewhat like a triangle, whose base about four miles long is northward. On its north it is joined to a dense morass of reeds, etc. It is held to be the same that is called the ‘waters of Merom’ in Joshua 11:5,7.

3. Lake of Gennesaret, also called the Sea of Galilee, and the Sea of Tiberias. It is of a pear shape, and is about 12½, miles long, and eight miles at its widest part. Its deepest part is about 160 feet. Hot springs are found on its shores. It is remarkable for its sudden and violent storms. It is mentioned many times in the gospels in connection with the Lord’s ministry, and its shores must have then presented a lively scene. Now all is desolation around it, and though it abounds in fish, there are few boats. The Arabs walk into the water and secure a few fish at a time.

4. The Dead Sea. This is called in the Old Testament ‘the Salt Sea’ (Num. 34:12, etc.) and ‘the Sea of the Plain’ (Deut. 3:17). It is also called by Josephus ‘the Asphaltic Lake.’ All these names are appropriate. It contains more than four times as much salt as ordinary sea-water, so that nothing can live in it, and lumps of bitumen are at times found on its shores. Its waters are so dense that a man can with difficulty sink. Grandeur, desolation, and death are here wonderfully united.

It is about 46 miles long, and about 10 miles broad. Its bottom at the deepest part (at times about 1,300 feet below its surface) is held to be the lowest part of the earth’s surface, and the sea itself to be the lowest lake in existence — about 1,300 feet below the level of the sea. Toward the south a promontory runs into the sea from the east: the part south of this is much shallower.

An immense quantity of water is annually poured into this lake, but apparently it has no outlet. Being shut in by high hills evaporation by intense heat must be very rapid. It is unlike every other known lake.

The Mountains

There are many mountains referred to in Old Testament history. The two conspicuous in the New Testament are

1. the Mount of Transfiguration. This is said to be a high mountain, and is traditionally associated with Mount Tabor, which is in Galilee, about seven miles east of Nazareth. It is 1,843 feet high. Others think a spur of Mount Hermon to be a far more probable site. It lies on the northern boundary of Israel. The Lord was in this vicinity when at Caesarea-Philippi (Matt. 16:13; Mark 8:27) shortly before the transfiguration. Mount Hermon would be also more suitable for the privacy of the transfiguration. Tabor had been the scene of war and murders; but of Hermon, which is famous for its dews, it is said, that brethren dwelling together in unity is like the precious ointment that descended on Aaron, as the dew of Hermon (Psa. 133). The highest peak of Hermon is more than 9,000 feet high, and is covered with snow, which, melting in summer, contributes to the Jordan.

2. Mount Olivet, or the Mount of Olives, so called because of the olive trees that grew thereon. It lies close to Jerusalem on the east, being separated from the city by the valley of Kedron. Its height above the sea is about 2,683 feet. As the Lord sat on this mount, in full view of the guilty city, He foretold its destruction and spoke of His own return to the earth, etc. He also lodged by night on this mount (Luke 21:37; John 8:1).

The other principal mountains, besides Tabor, Hermon, and Carmel, already mentioned, are, on the east of the Jordan, Gilead, about 3,750 feet high; Hor, 5,300 feet high; and Pisgah or Nebo, 2,643 feet high. On the west of the Jordan are Jebel Jermuk, a little south of 33° N. 3,934 feet above the sea. Ebal, about 3,077 feet high, and Gerizim, 2,849 feet high, near together in Samaria. Tel Asur, a little south of 32° N. about 3,318 feet high. Mount Zion, forming a part of the city of Jerusalem, 2,550 feet high. Yutta, about 31° 27' N. 3,747 feet high. Authorities differ as to the height of the mountains and the level of the lakes above or below the Mediterranean Sea; the above must therefore be taken as approximate.

The above short sketch must suffice to show the general features of the land that was so highly blessed by God in the days of David and Solomon. Now, under the judgment of God, it is a scene of desolation and spoliation. Under Turkish rule, every town and village is more or less in ruins. A colony of Germans, however, have settled in the land, and many Jews also have contrived to acquire property, though under doubtful security. A railway has been opened from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and another is projected, running from Acre across the plain of Esdraelon and through the valley of Jezreel, crossing the Jordan within sight of Bethshean, and then proceeding northward to Damascus.

These changes will doubtless effect an amelioration in the wretched condition of the country to some extent. And it is well to know that all will be surely changed, for God has declared it. It is true that dreadful scenes of war and bloodshed are still to be enacted in that land; but in God’s due time it will be purged, and the latter glory of that land and of God’s temple there will exceed all that has yet been; for the blessed Lord Himself will be there, and then where He was once abused and put to death, He will be hailed as King of kings and Lord of lords. May God hasten it in His own time.

Idols and Idol Worship

The first and reliable notice of idolatry on record, is in connection with Israel’s great progenitor — Abraham (Josh. 24:2). At what precise time this awful evil was introduced into the world, it is impossible to say, certainly not previous to the flood, but probably at or soon after the dispersion. Whether idol worship originated in the land of the Pharaoh’s or in the northern power of Assyria, cannot be determined, nor is it a point, we conceive, of the slightest importance.

Idolatry is the worship of demons (1 Cor. 10:20). Satan succeeded in getting himself introduced before the conscience of man, as the author and source of all evil and all good; hence he soon came to be worshipped. He quickly deified the passions, virtues, powers of man and of nature. He worked upon men’s feelings, fears, and pride. The great effort was to lower the creatures’ conception of the Creator. Man, under the guiding hand of Satan “changed the glory of the uncorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man.” Could the intelligent creature sink lower? Could a step be reached in the fast descending scale of moral corruption, yet lower? Yes; and let the Word of God, amply confirmed by the facts of history now well-known and accessible to all, rebuke the unbelief of Christendom and the savants of the nineteenth century, when the world’s regeneration and the development of human nature are so loudly proclaimed and so strongly insisted upon. It was not the ignorant heathen, but the wise and learned — whose works are now the subject of study and research in our learned universities — who “changed the glory of the uncorruptible God ... to birds, and four-footed beasts,” and, as if that were not low enough, Satan rested not till he secured the world’s worship of himself — under the form of the serpent or “creeping things” (Rom. 1:23; Gen. 3:14). The worship of Satan once so prevalent and almost universal, singly or in conjunction with the sun, will yet be general over these lands of present light and privilege (Rev. 13; 2 Thess. 2). The deities of the ancients were usually worshipped in pairs; thus, Sir H. Rawlinson tells us that “every god” of the Assyrians “is associated with a goddess.” What a degrading conception of the one and only true God!

That the reader may form some idea of the extent to which idolatry was practiced, we append a list, by no means complete, of heathen deities. It will be observed, that all which could possibly act upon and influence man, is here represented by its distinctive divinity. How completely this shut God out from the thoughts of man: —

Angenoria, goddess of industry.

Angerona, goddess of silence.

Apollo, goddess of music, etc.

Astraea, goddess of justice.

Ate, goddess of revenge.

Aurora, goddess of the morning.

Autumnus, god of fruits.

Aeolus, god of the winds.

Aescalapius, god of physic.

Bacchus, god of wine.

Bapta, goddess of shame.

Bellona, goddess of war.

Boreas, god of the north wind.

Ceres, goddess of agriculture.

Collina, goddess of hills.

Comus, god of mirth.

Concordia, goddess of peace.

Cupid, god of love.

Cybele, goddess of the earth.

Diana, goddess of hunting; of marriage, and chastity.

Discordia, goddess of contention.

Fama, goddess of report.

Flora, goddess of flowers.

Fortune, goddess of misery and happiness.

Harpocrates, god of silence.

Hebe, goddess of youth.

Historia, goddess of history.

Hygeia, goddess of health.

Hymen, god of marriage.

Janus, god of the year.

Juno, goddess of heaven.

Jupiter, the supreme male deity.

Mercury, god of eloquence.

Minerva, goddess of wisdom.

Mnemosyne, goddess of memory.

Momus, god of raillery.

Mors, goddess of death.

Mars, god of war.

Morpheus, god of dreams.

Neptune, god of the sea.

Pan, god of shepherds.

Pitho, goddess of eloquence.

Pluto, god of hell.

Plutus, god of riches.

Pomona, goddess of fruits.

Proserpine, queen of the infernal regions.

Psyche, goddess of pleasure.

Saturn, god of time.

Somnus, god of sleep.

Sylvanus, god of the woods.

Terminus, god of boundaries.

Thetis, goddess of the sea.

Vacuna, goddess of idleness.

Venus, goddess of love, beauty, and marriage.

Vertumnus, god of the spring.

Vesta, goddess of fire.

Universality of Idol Worship

If the foregoing list shows the multiform character of idolatry, the following list of countries and towns gathered alone from the Scriptures, may give an idea of its universality. We have only named those places in immediate or remote connection with Israel: —

Egypt (Ex. 12:12);

Edom (2 Chron. 25:20);

Damascus (2 Chron. 28:23);

Syria (2 Chron. 28:23);

Hamath (Isa. 36:19);

Sepharvaim (Isa. 36:19);

Moab (1 Kings 11:33);

Ammom (Judg. 10:6);

Zidon (Judg. 10:6);

Philistines (Judg. 10:6);

Amorites (Josh. 24:15);

Hittites (Ex. 23:23-24);

Israel (Ex. 32:23-24);

Canaanites (Ex. 23:23-24);

Jebusites (Ex. 23:23-24).

Perizzites (Ex. 23:23-24);

Babylon (Jer. 50:38);

Assyria (2 Kings 17);

Samaria (Isa. 10:11).

Jerusalem (Isa. 10:11);

Athens (Acts 17:16).

The blessed Lord sketches the past, present, and future state of Judah in relation to idolatry in Matthew 12:43-45. The unclean spirit of idolatry left Judah at the epoch of the Babylon captivity, and from the return to Jerusalem the house was “empty, swept, and garnished.” Idolatry was again and again forced upon the people, but as often and sternly rejected. There was no idolatry in Immanuel’s land from the return to Canaan till Christ, nor amongst the people since. But there is a terrible future in store for Judah ere “the Lord build up Zion.” When restored to her land by the friendly help of an unnamed maritime nation, this will in the first instance be her truly dreadful condition; “then goeth he, and taketh with himself seven other spirits (Idolatry perfected) more wicked than himself, and they enter in and dwell there: and the last state of that man is worse than the first. Even so shall it be also unto this wicked generation.”

List of the Principal Idols Mentioned in Scriptures

Adrammelech, (2 Kings 17:31) — An Assyrian deity supposed to represent the ‘Sun.’ Children were offered in sacrifice to this idol.

Anammelech, (2 Kings 17:31) — An Assyrian deity supposed to represent the ‘Moon.’ Children were offered in sacrifice to this idol.

Ashima, (2 Kings 17:30) — Worshipped by the people of Hamath. This idol represented a ‘goat.’

Ashtoreth, (1 Kings 11:33) — This disgusting form of idolatry was the prevalent one amongst the Philistines, Zidonians, etc. and was a female figure representing the ‘Moon.’

Baal, (1 Kings 18:21) — This god is mentioned about 25 times in the Holy Scriptures. Baal is often associated with Ashtoreth, the former connected with bloody rites, the latter with licentiousness. Baal was more frequently worshipped by the ancient world than any other god mentioned in Scripture. It was generally a male deity representing the ‘Sun.’

[In the apostate days of Ahab, King of Israel, this idol had no less than 450 prophets devoted to his special service, besides 400 prophets of the “groves” — where he would also be worshipped (2 Kings 17). There are traces still extant of customs in Ireland, Wales, and parts of Scotland, which evidently show that Baal worship was practiced by our ancestors under the ancient Druids. In Perthshire there is a town called Tilliebeltane — the hill of the fire of Baal.]

Baal-berith, (Jud. 8:33) — The worship of ‘Baal’ by the Shechemites.

Baal-peor, (Num. 25:3) — Worship of the ‘sun’ practiced by the Moabites, etc. under the most indecent circumstances, and whose women seduced Israel to this filthy form of idolatry.

Baal-Zebub, (2 Kings 1:2-16) — The god of the Philistines, or “god of Ekron.” Baal signifies ‘Lord,’ and Baal-Zebub means the ‘Lord or god of flies.’

Bamah, (Ezek. 20:29) — The word signifies an idolatrous ‘high place.’ Bamoth (plural) means ‘high places,’ and refers to Baal worship in high and exposed places (Josh. 13:17).

Bel, (Jer. 50:2) — Chief male deity of the Babylonians. It is uncertain what form of worship was represented by Bel. This deity had a most superb temple erected for its worship, said to have been 600 feet high, while its base covered a square of 200 yards.

Chemosh, (Num. 21:29, etc.) — A principal god of the Moabites and Ammonites, worshipped by Solomon, but who or what was represented by “Chemosh” is unknown; but human sacrifices were offered to him (2 Kings 3:27). The name of this god occurs in the Moabitish stone lately brought to light.

Chiun, (Amos 5:26) — An idol worshipped by Israel in the wilderness, and regarded as a form of ‘star’ worship. This is a solemn passage as intimating that in light of grace effecting deliverance from Egyptian bondage, they yet carried with them the idolatry of that land.

Dagon, (1 Sam. 5:2, etc.) — The Philistine national deity, in form partly a man and partly a fish. Ashdod and Gaza were the principal seats of its worship. Assyrian sculptures present this compound idol of fish and man.

Diana, (Acts 19:24-35) — A goddess of great renown amongst the Greeks. Her temple at Ephesus was a most magnificent structure. She is generally represented with many breasts, symbolizing the generative powers of nature and her ability to communicate fruitfulness in offspring. In the month of May, sacred to the goddess, immense numbers of models and shrines were sold to strangers, and thus carried all over the world. The Grecian goddess of the same name is not the Ephesian Diana — they differ in many respects.

Dragon, Beast, and “another Beast” or Man of Sin, (2 Thess. 2; Rev. 13) — In the short period — dark and awful — lying between the translation of the saints to heaven and their subsequent return with the Lord in glory, a triune form of Devil-worship will extensively prevail. Satan, also the head of the revived Latin Empire, and the Antichrist will be worshipped in imitation of the Christian revelation of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

Gad and Meni, (Isa. 65:11 — see margin) — In the text the words are rendered “troop” and “number.” These false deities are supposed, on the authority of Gesenius, to be the representatives of Jupiter and Venus — stars of good fortune.

God of Forces, (Dan. 11:38) — The antichristian king reigning in Israel in the future days of Judah’s apostasy will introduce a form of idolatry hitherto unknown amongst the Jews, here called the “god of forces” or of war. The worship of war-implements is, however, common enough amongst the Hindus. Tradesmen of various crafts, and even scholars sacrifice to their books.

Groves, (Judg. 3:7, etc.) — The recesses of forests and gardens for the better concealment of the rites connected with idolatrous worship.

Golden calf, (Ex. 32:1-6; 1 Kings 12:28) — This was a form of idolatry borrowed from Egypt. By this low kind of image-worship man not only lowered his own glory (Psa. 106:20), but changed the glory of the Creator (Rom. 1:23) to that of the meanest of the creatures. Five centuries afterward Jeroboam established this form of idolatry (1 Kings 12), no doubt because of its familiarity to him when in Egypt (1 Kings 11:40).

High places, (2 Kings 15:35, etc.) — These were generally built on very hilly and exposed situations, and specially appropriated to idolatrous purposes. Solomon and others of the kings erected these places for the express purpose of idol worship. It was a standing reproach even to the godly kings that they failed to exterminate this favourite mode of idolatry (2 Chron. 15:17, etc.). In patriarchal times, however, the summits of hills and mountainous places were used in the pure worship of Jehovah (Genesis 22:2).

Jupiter and Mercurius, (Acts 14:12) — Jupiter was the supreme heathen divinity; and supposed to have absolute control over all gods and creation. Mercurius was the ‘god of speech or eloquence,’ and the special messenger of Jupiter. Hence Barnabas, probably because of his venerable appearance or supposed likeness to their god, was named ‘Jupiter’ by the Lystrians; and Paul, because of his speech, ‘Mercurius.’

Merodach, (Jer. 50:2) — The Babylonian god of ‘war,’ and of great repute in Assyria and Babylon.

Milcom, (1 Kings 11:5) — An Ammonite idol, same as Moloch.

Moloch, (2 Kings 23:10) — The representative of fire, and an exceedingly cruel form of idol-worship. The arms were made red hot, and human victims, especially children, placed upon them, while the cries of the agonized sufferers were drowned by the beating of drums. The idolatry practiced by the Moabites and Ammonites was both disgusting and cruel.

Nebo, (Isa. 46:1) — Worshipped by the Assyrians and Babylonians, and regarded as the god of speech and learning, and thus equivalent to the ‘Mercury’ of the Latins. He seems to have been the tutelar deity of the royal race, as the name is incorporated in several of the kings’ names.

Nehushtan, (2 Kings 18:4) — A word of contempt, meaning ‘piece of brass,’ applied to the brazen serpent (Num. 21:8), which had been long worshipped by the Israelites.

Nergal, (2 Kings 17:30) — An Assyrian divinity of great repute, and was supposed to preside over the fortunes of ‘war’ and ‘hunting.’ In the monumental sculptures of the country, he is represented as partly lion and partly human.

Nibhaz, (2 Kings 17:31) — One of the idols introduced into Samaria after the deportation of the ten tribes. A species of combined ‘dog and man’ worship. “According to De la Roque, the colossal figure of a dog was found on the road to Tripolis, to which the inhabitants paid Divine honour.”

Nisroch, (2 Kings 19:37) — An Assyrian deity representing a ‘great eagle.’ In the Nineveh sculptures “Nisroch” is a compound of man and bird — the face being eagle-like and the body human. Sennacherib was worshipping this idol when slain by his two sons (Isa. 37:38).

Queen of Heaven, (Jer. 7:18) — The ‘moon’ was worshipped as the “queen of heaven,” under the title “Ashtoreth,” and was generally associated with “Baal,” the sun. The rites connected with these ancient forms of idolatrous worship were, by some nations, of the most indecent description.

Remphan, (Acts 7:43) — The representation of a particular ‘star,’ and the same as Chiun mentioned in Amos 5:26.

Rimmon, (2 Kings 5:18) — A Syrian idol supposed to represent the ‘sun,’ and worshipped by the king and nobles, who had a house devoted to its service.

Succoth-benoth, (2 Kings 17:30) — Occurs but once in Scripture, and refers to booths or tents erected by the colonists sent to people of Samaria in honour of the goddess of ‘uncleanness.’

Tammuz, (Ezek. 8:14) — This Syrian idol was worshipped in the very heart of Jerusalem itself. “Women weeping for Tammuz” refers to their grief on the periodical absence of their god. The rites connected therewith were of the most filthy description.

Tartak, (2 Kings 17:31) — Another of the heathen idols introduced into Samaria after the overthrow of the kingdom of Israel. Who or what “Tartak” represents is not known. According to the uncertain teachings of the Rabbins, it had the figure of an ‘ass.’

Teraphim, (Judg. 17:5) — Household gods in general as distinguished from national deities; consulted in daily matters as oracles, hence Zechariah 10:2; Genesis 31:19,30.

Unknown God, (Acts 17:23) — Athens was a city wholly given to idolatry, so that it has been termed “the altar of Greece”; yet this highly-polished and intellectual people publicly proclaimed their ignorance of God and all true knowledge of God, by erecting an altar and inscribing thereon, “To the unknown God.”

Notes

The world’s population in 1887 was roughly estimated at 1,350 millions, of whom about 360,000,000 were nominally Christian; but even this small proportion includes infidels and unbelievers of all kinds, besides the existence of nearly 1,300 rival sects and parties. On a rough average, there were 990,000,000 idolaters in the world — three-fourths of the entire population of the world.

It was estimated that in the continents of Asia and Africa there were about 960,000,000, and not a nation amongst them who revered the Scriptures or worship God, except, perhaps, Liberia, early colonized by the United States of America, and consisted principally of emancipated slaves.

The Koran was accepted by about 60,000,000; Buddhism numbers about 360,000,000; Brahmanism about 150,000,000; besides Jews, the followers of Zoroaster or fire-worshippers of Persia, etc. and others who deny the fundamental truths of Christianity, of whom the numbers cannot be estimated.

“All over the ancient world the offering of perfumes formed a recognized and indispensable part of religious worship. There is a reference to this well-known fact in the inspired description of idols, “Noses have they, but they smell not.” Until very recently the sweet sedge was strewn on the floors of the cathedrals of England, particularly Norwich cathedral, and it exhaled, when trodden, a delicious fragrance which filled the whole building as with incense.” What is this but a modified form of idolatry so prevalent in the Greek church, and even in her western rival — Popery! Is Protestantism entirely free from the awful charge? Idolatry is having a center for the heart short of the living God, revealed in Christ, and personally known and loved as a Saviour-god.

Inspiration

It is of the highest importance that the Christian should be thoroughly clear as to the plenary inspiration of the Scriptures. Without attempting to write a treatise on the subject, a few remarks may be advisable, especially in reference to the difficulties that present themselves to some minds.

It is quite certain that we can know nothing as to the inspiration of the Scriptures except from what we find in the Scriptures themselves. If these are allowed to speak and to mean what they say, there seems no room for doubt on the subject. Thus we read that “God, who at sundry times and in divers manners spake in time past unto the fathers by the prophets, hath in these last days spoken unto us by His Son” (Heb. 1:1-2). Here it is “God spake,” and not simply by the prophets, but really in the prophets, whose writings we are able to read for ourselves; and when we read we hear God speaking to us.

It is precisely in this sense that Paul quotes the Old Testament. “Well spake the Holy Ghost by Esaias the prophet unto our fathers, saying, Go,” etc. (Acts 28:25-26). Here it is “the Holy Ghost spake” by or through the prophet, whereby we know what the Holy Spirit spake.

The above passage in the Hebrews also declares that God has spoken to us in the Person of His Son, and His words have by inspiration been recorded in the gospels by His servants. Our Lord referred to the words He uttered. “He that rejecteth Me, and receiveth not My words, hath one that judgeth him: the word that I have spoken, the same shall judge him in the last day” (John 12:48).

We find the same thought running all through Scripture: it is God speaking to man through inspired channels. We might have thought that there would be a difference between that which is historical and that which is doctrinal; or that the record of what a man saw and heard might rest upon a different basis from things that could never have been known had not God been pleased to make a revelation — such as of the creation — but God has explicitly stated that as to inspiration there is no difference: “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God”; or, “every Scripture is God-inspired” (2 Tim. 3:16). God’s ‘all’ or ‘every’ should assure our hearts that the Bible is indeed, as we rejoice to call it, “The Word of God.”

This should be enough for us all, and it is a matter of thankfulness that it is ample for thousands of simple souls, who never for a moment doubt that they have in the Scriptures exactly what God caused to be written for their instruction and blessing, and God will bless such faith.

Such souls have been ‘taught of God,’ and the word carries its own divine authority with it to their hearts and consciences: “The Word of God is quick [living], and powerful, and sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit, and of the joints and marrow, and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart. Neither is there any creature that is not manifest in His sight: but all things are naked and opened unto the eyes of Him with whom we have to do” (Heb. 4:12-13). Such simple believers know that it is God’s Word, though they may not be able to refute the objections of unbelievers. But this is not a serious matter, for the Word has stood and will stand against all the hatred of man and Satan, and the mere convincing of the unbeliever would not work his conversion: divinely wrought faith in his heart is necessary to this.

Some, alas! have their difficulties: it may be through the workings of their own minds, or through the suggestions of others, tempted without doubt by Satan, who is ever ready to oppose God and to call in question what God has wrought out for the salvation of man. Satan first suggests a doubt, as he did with Eve: “Hath God said, Ye shall not eat of every tree of the garden?” and when this had had its effect, he made a positive assertion — tells a lie, indeed — ”Ye shall not surely die” (Gen. 3:1-4). So with respect to the Scriptures, we must take the shield of faith, and not listen to his insinuations. Some who began merely to raise questions, now do not hesitate to deny what God has plainly declared respecting His own Word. A belief in what God has said about it will prevent many questions. For instance, long disputes have been held as to who wrote the Epistle to the Hebrews and some of the books of the Old Testament, and as to whether the writers were divinely inspired. It does not matter who penned the writings if God is the Author, and surely He is. If we believe this, all such questions are of little importance.

As to the inspiration of the Old Testament, the believer in the Lord Jesus cannot for a moment entertain a question, seeing that He put His seal to the collection as a whole in its three-fold division: the law of Moses, the prophets, and the Psalms, and they are immediately called by the evangelist “the Scriptures” (Luke 24:44-45).

We will now look at a few definite objections that have been raised.

(1.) The question has often been asked, Is it not enough to believe that the general sense of the Scripture was given under inspiration without believing that the very words were inspired?

It is not enough. The meaning of Scripture is positive and definite, and this can only be attained by the choice of right words. A single different word would destroy the meaning of many passages, and a different inflection of the same verb even would do the same. For instance, our Lord said, “Upon this rock I will build My church” (Matt. 16:18). To make it read “I am building” would spoil it entirely. Again He said, “He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life” (John 3:36). How different it would be if it read ‘shall have,’ though this may be said elsewhere.

The Lord again and again spoke of the importance of His hearers believing His ‘words’; we read also of the ‘words’ which the Holy Spirit teaches: also ‘the words of God’; ‘the oracles of God.’ Of the law not a jot or tittle was to fail — not even the smallest letter or part of a letter! Surely 1 Corinthians 2:13 should be evidence enough for all believers that verbal inspiration is the truth.

Again, when we consider how many subjects there are in Scripture that had never before occupied man’s thoughts, and had consequently never before been put into words; how many profound doctrines; how much revealed of God, His nature, His attributes, His actions; the complex Person of our Lord; the actings of the Holy Spirit; the incomprehensible nature of the Trinity; the many things involved in the salvation of man; the varied prophecies; the symbolical language of Scripture, etc. — we can only conclude that all these things, and many, many others, could not have been correctly expressed in human language except by God Himself choosing the very words used.

We must therefore hold that God teaches us that the very words of Scripture are inspired, for nothing less than this can be called ‘God-inspired.’

Scholars tell us that there is a peculiar element in the words used in the New Testament. “This arises from the novelty of the teachings combined with their exalted morality. The new thoughts demanded new modes of expression, and hence the writer did not hesitate to use words in senses rare if not entirely unknown to the classical writers.” An investigation of particular words seems “to form no inconsiderable addition to the proof of the divinity of Christianity, for the grand moral ideas that were expressed by some of them are unique in the age in which they were uttered. Thus the word ζωή (life) is frequently used to denote an entire and absolute consecration of soul, body, and spirit to God; for it is this entire consecration which they look upon as the life-principle of man. Living, with them, if it be not living to God in Christ, is not living at all, but death..... So δόξα means ‘glory’; but the writers of the N. T. separate from it every notion of material splendour or earthly Renown.... And so the δόξα of the N.T. is purely spiritual and moral.... The moral fervour of the writers is also seen in their omission of certain words. Thus the sensuous ἕραν is never used to express the idea they had of love.... indeed the writers do not use any word to express mere happiness..... They avoid all words connected with mythology.” — Kitto’s “Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature.”

(2.) But it has been objected to the above that the great mass of Christians know the Scriptures only in translations; and how can it be truthfully said that the words of a translation are inspired?

Let it first be noted that most of the passages quoted from the Old Testament by the Lord, and by the writers of the New Testament, are taken, not from the original Hebrew, but from the Septuagint, which is a translation of the Hebrew into Greek. These quotations are represented as ‘Scripture’ and as the words of God by the prophets, precisely in the same way as are the quotations which are made directly from the Hebrew.

It surely cannot be denied that the same fact or the same truth can be correctly translated from one language into another, and wherever this is done, does it not represent the very words of inspired Scripture? Let us take an illustration from 1 John 4:8.

	ὁ θεύδ ἀγάπη έστίυ	Dieu est amour.
	Deus caritas est.	Gott ist [die] Liebe.
	God is love.	‘Iddio sia carita.

Now if it be true, as we believe, that all of these tell to those who can read them the same important fact that “God is love,” surely we may truthfully say that the words are inspired; nevertheless, when verbal inspiration is spoken of as a whole, it primarily refers to the actual words used by the inspired writers, and found in the Greek New Testament.

This will show the importance of an accurate translation, that the meaning of the original may be precisely represented; but whether the translations be good or not, does not touch the question of verbal inspiration (for that refers, as we have said, to what God caused to be written), though a faulty translation may be the cause of our losing in some passages the full advantage of that inspiration.

We have said that the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament is quoted in the New Testament as Scripture, and this is true, but it is worthy of note that the LXX. is not quoted word for word in every case (though it is in many places); but at times, a few words are altered, as if the writer, led by the Holy Spirit, corrected the translation. In several instances the Hebrew text is followed; and in a few places, a paraphrase is given following neither the Hebrew nor the Greek. (See Quotations from the Old Testament in the New.)

It may be a matter of surprise to some that in the quotations from the Old Testament the Hebrew was not always quoted. Doubtless, the reason why this was not done was the fact that the people had become familiar with the Greek version, in the same way that Christians in England are familiar with the Authorized Version. The Lord and the writers of the New Testament therefore used the LXX. with the above reservations; and thus also completely answered the objection that a translation cannot be treated as inspired.

(3.) It is further objected that in the existing Greek manuscripts there are many variations, and that a printed Greek text has to be copied from some compilation of the manuscripts: what therefore becomes of verbal inspiration?

The same objection could be made as to the LXX. which translation had been made nearly three hundred years before it was quoted by the Lord, and would not be free from errors and omissions of the copyists; yet the Lord used it as Scripture that could not be broken (John 10:35). Can the objectors suppose that He was mistaken?

Still let us examine the objection. In it there are again two questions commingled which should be kept distinct. The question as to verbal inspiration is: Did God overrule the writers of Scripture with respect to the words they used? We say Yes. But whether we have a correct copy of what God caused to be written is quite another thing, and can in no way affect the question before us. It is because some have believed in verbal inspiration that they have spent a great part of their lives in comparing together the many existing manuscripts, versions, etc. eliminating the mistaken readings which at some link in the chain of transmission had been made by writers of the text, with the object of restoring a correct text. They have found that in a few places the common text should be altered; but it is a matter of great thankfulness that God has so protected the text of His book that none of the fundamental truths of Christianity are in any way rendered doubtful through the various readings of the manuscripts. See further remarks on the Text of the New Testament.

(4.) A difficulty some have is what has been called ‘the human element’ in inspiration. It is said that the writings of Paul are quite different in style from those of John, and, indeed, that the writings of each of the inspired penmen shew that they thought differently, and that their habit of mind is stamped upon their writings; and how is this consistent with verbal inspiration?

There can be very little doubt but that the minds of the writers differed from each other in the same way that the minds of Christians differ one from another in our own day. It has pleased God to use human instruments all through, and each one suitable for the special work assigned to him, but surely He could as easily use the minds of His servants as their hands. He formed their minds, and knew the peculiarity of each, and could use all to express exactly what He was pleased to convey, yet He spoke through them.

Variations of style are also manifest in the Old Testament prophets, but they did not speak anything of themselves: they were holy men of God, who spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit, or, as it has been literally translated “spake as they were borne by the Holy Spirit.” As a skilful musician can play the same tune on various instruments, though each instrument has its own peculiar character of tone, so God has given forth the same and kindred truths, though using the varying minds of different men; and this in no way touches verbal inspiration.

It is to be noticed that the character of inspiration is different for the New Testament writers from what it was for those who wrote the Old Testament, not that there is any difference in their authority. The prophets were moved by the Spirit to write, and afterward they sought the deep meaning of their own writings (1 Peter 1:10-11); whereas the New Testament writers, having the Holy Spirit consequent on redemption and the heavenly glory of Christ, had intelligence in the truth they communicated: 1 Corinthians 2:9 (Old Testament times), and verse 10, “But God hath revealed them unto us by His Spirit: for the Spirit searcheth all things, yea, the deep things of God”: and verse 16, “We have the mind [or intelligence] of Christ.” Their moral being was affected by the truths they were instrumental in communicating. The objections of those who have not felt this same power in their souls will not shake the confidence of a Christian in the plenary, divine, and infallible inspiration of the holy Scriptures.

(5.) Some find a difficulty in reconciling with verbal inspiration various expressions used by the writers: such as “I think also that I have the Spirit of God” (1 Cor. 7:40). Paul said, “I thank God that I baptized none of you, but Crispus and Gaius,” but afterward added, “And I baptized also the household of Stephanas: besides, I know not whether I baptized any other” (1 Cor. 1:14,16).

It is well to see that many sayings are recorded in Scripture which were not in themselves inspired: we find, for instance, the sayings of Pharaoh, and even of the demons, and of Satan himself. The record of these sayings is inspired: not, of course, the sayings themselves.

We also have the sins of God’s children recorded by inspiration: as when Peter denied his Lord. Also their failures: as when the disciples asked if they should call down fire from heaven on those who would not receive the Lord. When Paul speaks of the baptizing above-named, it is evident that he could not call to mind how many he had baptized at Corinth. So also, when he wished to give weight to his judgment he added that he thought he had the Holy Spirit. In all these cases it is the record of what actually existed or what was actually said that is inspired, altogether apart from the question of whether those deeds and sayings were of God.

(6.) But it is further objected that Paul himself, in writing on marriage, distinguishes between what he was commanded to write and what he wrote of himself — and if it was thus in one place may it not be the same in others? He says, “I speak this by permission, and not of commandment. ... And unto the married I command, yet not I, but the Lord. ... But to the rest speak I, not the Lord. ... Now concerning virgins, I have no commandment of the Lord: yet I give my judgment, as one that hath obtained mercy of the Lord to be faithful” (1 Cor. 7:6,10,12,25).

We have already seen that God records by inspiration, among other things, the failures of His saints: here is recorded the judgment of one of His devoted and godly servants; and Paul carefully distinguishes this from what he gives by commandment of the Lord. Paul also tells us that he had repented of having written this very epistle: not that he continued to do so, and not because of what he had written in chapter 7; but he had rebuked the saints, and may have feared that he had been too severe, dreading the consequences, for we know how anxious he was as to how this epistle had been received. The saints at Corinth had written to Paul on the subjects in question, and Paul here gives his judgment, believing that it was good for the distress that was then present. We may be quite sure that if he had done the same elsewhere he would have pointed it out as carefully as he has done it here. It should also be noted that much of the above chapter is what Paul recommends to the Christians, if they have faith and power to follow his advice; if they acted otherwise, and married, it would not be sin. We must distinguish such passages, where the writer is inspired to give his judgment, from those which give a “revelation,” or the express will of God as the “commandment of the Lord” (see 1 Thess. 4:15).

(7.) Another objection to verbal inspiration raised by some is what they term the ‘trifling’ things named in some places. 2 Timothy 4:13 has been especially named. “The cloak that I left at Troas with Carpus, when thou comest, bring with thee, and the books, but especially the parchments.” The salutations at the end of the epistles have also been declared to be unworthy of inspiration.

It must be remembered that most of the epistles are really ‘letters,’ such as a godly man, caring for the welfare of other Christians, would write, especially, as was the case with Paul, if he was writing to those of whose conversion he had been the means. Who would ever write such letters without sending individual salutations, if there was any real love in the writer for those to whom he wrote? The heart must speak. Notice, too, the distinctions made: some are simply to be saluted by name; others are called ‘beloved,’ and others ‘wellbeloved.’ Surely there was a reason for this, which has lessons for each one of us. In contrast to the above friendly greetings, observe how the Epistle to the Galatians has simply, “All the brethren which are with me” without any one being named. The salutations are as much inspired as any other part of Scripture. They are expressions of ‘love in the Spirit,’ and are the outgoings of the divine nature to all the children of God. Love characterizes the family of God. (See 1 John 3:14; 4:7.)

As to the passage in 2 Timothy, Paul was then a prisoner, bound with a chain, was it an unreasonable thing to ask Timothy to bring the cloak, especially when he asks him to “come before winter”? It shows, too, that Paul valued the books and parchments, whatever they were. As Paul cared for the body of Timothy (1 Tim. 5:23), so the Lord cared for the comfort of the body of Paul, and led him to write for the cloak. (The saints at Rome had perhaps, alas! failed to think of the beloved apostle’s needs.) Do such objectors think that the Lord has no care for their bodies? Then why should He not care for Paul’s? Useful lessons too have been learned from Paul’s mention of the books and parchments, in not despising what other Christians have felt themselves led to write, etc.

To a believer in verbal inspiration, such objections appear very paltry. Who is man, that he should decide what is and what is not worthy of the Holy Spirit? Grace does enter into the minutest details of things in this life — the wearing of long or short hair, the circumstances of slaves, etc. Where poor man sees only unworthiness, the simple believer who is taught of God rejoices and adores.

In conclusion, it is again pressed that if we wish to learn the true nature of Scripture, we must let God instruct us, and He tells us that “every scripture is God-inspired.” If we wish to understand what this means, other passages will teach us: such as, “The Lord God of Israel ... spake by the mouth of His holy prophets, which have been since the world began” (Luke 1:70); again, “The Holy Ghost by the mouth of David spake,” etc. And to make it more definite we read of “the words ... which the Holy Ghost teacheth;” “thus spake Jesus,” etc. Surely these statements are enough for any soul desiring to be taught by God. On the veracity of those ‘words’ we hang our soul’s salvation, and also find them “profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness: that the man of God may be perfect, throughly furnished unto all good works” (2 Tim. 3:16-17).

The effort of the enemy is to rob the soul of a divine witness, and substitute a human one. The verbal inspiration is taken away and we have only truths — divine in themselves, but communicated by a merely human witness, consequently in a faulty and fallible way; there is no longer an infallible, divine foundation for faith to rest on. Soul-saving faith is believing GOD (Rom. 4:3; John 3:33-34).

Jerusalem

Jerusalem, the ancient capital of the kingdom, is named in the Scriptures upwards of 800 times, and although she has suffered more than any city on the face of the earth, having been besieged and pillaged about 20 times, and her present degradation under the Turk is complete, and her restoration humanly impossible, yet, a little while, and Jerusalem will rise from the dust of ages, and become the earthly metropolis and center of the coming era of glory (Isa. 60). This wonderful city — wonderful in its very ruins and sacred associations, will be rebuilt in a style of surpassing magnificence. The whole extent of the “oblation” or holy part of the land lying between the portions assigned to Judah and Benjamin, has been computed to form a square of about fifty miles; within this area, the temple, gardens, and city will be situated, the latter forming a square of about thirty-six miles (Ezek. 48:8-22). The temple, not on the site of the old one, will be a costly structure, and may be about a mile in length (for these and other particulars, consult the prophet Ezekiel, last nine chapters). Jehovah Shammah, meaning “the Lord is there,” will be Jerusalem’s new name in the day of her gladness.

1887 Description of the City

Jerusalem is naturally an object of interest to the Christian. Whether we contemplate its importance in the Old Testament history, or as a place visited by our Lord, in which stood the temple that He called “My Father’s house,” the city where He was tried and condemned, and near to which He was crucified; or if we view it as a place still to come into prominence and blessing, it is full of interest to the Christian. Many passages speak of the prosperity of this city: “The Lord doth build up Jerusalem” (Psa. 147:2); “Pray for the peace of Jerusalem” (Psa. 122:6); “The joy of the whole earth, is mount Zion” (Psa. 48:2).

Alas! for the present all is the reverse. On our Lord’s last visit He wept over the city, and foretold its destruction: it should be laid even with the ground; there should not be left one stone upon another (Luke 19:41-44). Elsewhere we have described its destruction by Titus; since which it has been rebuilt and destroyed more or less completely several times. It has had many masters, and is now owned by the Sultan of Turkey. Though the houses are built of stone, very little is done to keep many of them in repair. If a room becomes uninhabitable, another is used; if a staircase is unsafe it is propped up, until at last the whole house is deserted, and perhaps becomes a stable. Thus desolation reigns supreme. Some of the streets being steep cause them to be somewhat cleaner than in other eastern cities, but little care is taken to keep the city clean, and it has been described as filthy: the part inhabited by the Jews is declared to be the worst! Now a railway is opened to Jerusalem, it is anticipated that improvements will take place in the city, if only to accommodate the increase of visitors.

Jerusalem is divided into sections devoted to particular classes. As might be expected, the Mahometans occupy the largest portion, situated on the north-east; the Christians (mostly of the Greek and Latin churches) on the north-west; the Armenians on the south-west; and the Jews on the south-east. There are also a few Copts, Syrians, and others found in Jerusalem.

The principal streets are discernible in a map. Any one entering at the Jaffa Gate faces David Street; at the end of which is Temple Street, both running nearly due east and reaching to the large Mosque enclosure, called Haram es-Sherif, ‘The noble sanctuary.’ On it is built the Mosque of Omar, or Mosque-es-Sakhra. If we enter Zion Gate on the south, and go a little to the right, a direct road reaches to the north through Mount Zion Street and Damascus Street, which leads to the Damascus Gate on the north. These two roads divide the city into four parts, agreeing in the main with the four sections named above. A street running west from St. Stephen’s Gate on the east is called Via Dolorosa, so named because it is said that the Lord passed down it when on His way to Golgotha. (The monks, among other numberless absurdities, point out a place where they say the Saviour fainted, and leaning against a wall, left the impression of His shoulder, preserved unto this day!) Several of the minor streets may be seen in a map. All the above names are what are given by the Christians, and differ from the names by which they are known to the Mahometans.

Besides the four gates mentioned above there is a small one on the south-east, called Dung Gate, little used; and others that are walled up. On the north there is Herod’s Gate; on the east the Golden Gate.

In Nehemiah 3:13 a Dung Gate is mentioned, but it may not be the same as the above; none of the gates mentioned by Nehemiah can now be identified; indeed they may not now exist.

The only gate (or market) distinctly referred to in the New Testament is in John 5:2, near to which was the Pool of Bethesda. This is the name now given to a reservoir near the St. Stephen’s Gate, called ‘Birket Israil.’ But this is judged to be much too deep to have been the pool alluded to by the evangelist. Though partly filled with rubbish it is still 40 feet deep. There are, however, the remains of other pools nearby. The Bordeaux Pilgrim says: “More within the city are two twin pools, having five porches, which are called Bethsaida.” He wrote A.D. 333.

If St. Stephen’s Gate existed at the time of our Lord it was doubtless by this gate that He entered into Jerusalem when seated upon the ass, after coming round the mount of Olives by the lower road, and ascending up to the city.

Besides the Pool of Bethesda, the only other named in the New Testament is the Pool of Siloam, and that doubtless refers to the one which still bears that name, on the slope of the Ophel hill on the south. It is known to be supplied with water from a fountain higher up the hill, called the Virgin’s Fountain, supposed to be the only fountain in or near Jerusalem. Several travellers have crawled through the passage from the Fountain to the Pool, and an inscription was found, which however merely stated that the tunnel was begun at both ends and met in the middle within a few feet. Though what it records is not of importance, it is believed by some (by the form of the letters) to have been written in the time of Hezekiah, who made alterations in the watercourses (2 Chron. 32). The flow of water is intermitting, as if regulated by an underground siphon; at intervals it rises so as to fill the smaller part of the channel. In the winter it rises three or four times a day; but in the autumn, after the rains, only once in several days. The rising of the water at various intervals has caused some to connect this with the troubling of the water by the angel, recorded by the evangelist John in John 5, and to believe that the Virgin’s Fountain is the Pool of Bethesda. But then the apostle John would be calling the same pool by two different names. Nothing must be allowed in any way to change the miracle recorded into a mere natural phenomenon: the effort to do this is, alas! too much the spirit of the age. God had preserved a witness in Jerusalem in the angel troubling the water and the cures that followed.

The remains of ancient aqueducts can be traced: their course may be seen on a map; but for the most part Jerusalem depends upon the rain for its supply of water, which is preserved in large tanks under the houses, but is often very impure. A large pool, called the Pool of Hezekiah, is near the Jaffa Gate.

There can be little doubt that the temple was situated on some part of the Mosque enclosure. There seems no other suitable place in Jerusalem, and if so, this defines for us the position of mount Moriah (2 Chron. 3:1). The dome of the rock rises above the raised platform on which the mosque of Omar is built. Another mosque (el-Aksa) is built at the south-west corner, and trees occupy other parts. On what part of the enclosure the temple stood is not known, for the Lord, when asked to view its massive stones, prophesied that one stone should not be left upon another, and this has been literally fulfilled; nothing of it remains.

This level space being so large — about thirty-five acres — and being on the top of a hill, walls had to be built up from the rock on all sides, joined by arches. The chambers which were thus formed still exist, and show signs of great antiquity. There are hundreds of pillars and many vaults, with steps here and there to lower vaults and cisterns.

The south-west portion of the city is held by most to be Zion, or the city of David. It was to be plowed as a field (Mic. 3:12), and it is plowed, and cereals are grown there, but outside the present wall. Between Zion and the Mosque enclosure runs the Tyropoeon valley. This would have separated Zion from the temple. But Josephus speaks of a bridge, and on the western wall of the Mosque enclosure are the remains of an arch, about 40 feet from the south-west angle. It is called the Robinson arch, because some jutting stones were judged by that traveller to be the remains of an arch. When the Palestine Exploration was carried on, the remains of a pier were discovered on the other side of the valley, which evidently formed a part of the same arch. The width of the bridge was 51 feet. The stones of the arch are lying on the pavement where they fell. Below the pavement was another arch and an aqueduct. Farther to the north, about 580 feet from the S.W. angle, has been discovered a similar arch, but in perfect preservation, and its crown is but little below the present surface. This is called the ‘Wilson’ arch, because Captain Wilson, R.E. discovered it. Below this is also an aqueduct.

These two bridges connected the temple area with the city when the valley was not so filled up with rubbish as it now is. The Lord may have often travelled over them.

The west side of the city is the highest, and it slopes towards the east; this fact, with the Tyropoeon valley running through the city from south to north, but turning west to about the Jaffa Gate, renders some of the streets very steep.

On the western side of the Mosque enclosure, not far north from Robinson’s arch, is the JEWS’ WAILING PLACE. Here they are allowed to assemble and read, weep, and pray. A high wall, apparently forming part of the original structure of the enclosure, hides them from those who frequent the mosques above. On Fridays and festivals they collect in numbers, and deplore the loss of their city and temple, they kiss the stones and weep while they pray for its deliverance and restoration.

Psalm 79 is often read: “O God, the heathen are come into Thine inheritance; Thy holy temple have they defiled; they have laid Jerusalem on heaps ... . How long, Lord? wilt Thou be angry forever? shall Thy jealousy burn like fire? ... Help us, O God of our salvation, for the glory of Thy name: and deliver us, and purge away our sins, for Thy name’s sake.” Others join in with, “Here sit we now, lonely, and weep.” But, alas! the veil is on their hearts still, and they see not what the blessed Lord, their Messiah, has done for them, and how ready He is to bless them.

The north wall of the city (measuring in a straight line from corner to corner) extends about 3,930 feet; the east 2,754 feet; the south, without noticing minor irregularities, 3,245 feet; and the west 2,086 feet. The circumference is about 2⅓ English miles, and its area about one-third of a square mile. One is struck with the smallness of the city.

Josephus, in describing the destruction of Jerusalem, speaks of various walls which so separated the city into sections that when one part was taken the people entered into another part, and further siege operations had to be instituted. Much interest has arisen as to where those walls stood. Josephus seems to trace all the walls from near one spot, which he calls the Hippicus. This is supposed to be the same as the Citadel, or Castle, on the west side near the Jaffa gate. At this spot there are ancient foundation stones which agree with the signs of antiquity elsewhere.

Let us suppose the first wall to start from the citadel and proceed to the S.W. corner as at present, and then still continue south, and sweep round the brow of the hill until it joins the south-east corner of the Mosque enclosure, somewhat as sketched in a map. Detached ledges of the rock have been traced that would agree with the above.

Another wall, called the second, started from the citadel and proceeded towards the Damascus Gate, and thence to the north-east corner of the city. Large ancient stones are found at the Damascus Gate, but the rest of the wall cannot be traced owing to the ruins.

A third wall started from the citadel or some portion of the second wall named above, and went much farther north to the brow of the hill, and swept round to the north-east corner of the second wall. On the west traces of the foundation of this wall are found; but it is attributed to Herod Agrippa, and was built some ten or twelve years after the time of the Lord.

Josephus says the circumference of the city equalled 33 stadia, that is, more than 3¾ English miles. As we have seen, the present city is less than 2½ miles: the above additions would make the extent of the city approximately the same as the dimensions given by Josephus.

The second wall has been a subject of great controversy, because of the modern site of the Holy Sepulchre, so-called. Christians are naturally surprised to find this within the city, and great efforts have been made to fix the course of the second wall so that it would leave that spot outside the city at the time of the crucifixion.

Respecting His tomb we gather from Scripture that, (1) it was in a garden, which was “in [or near] the place where He was crucified”: the “sepulchre was nigh at hand” (John 19:41-42). (2) “The place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city” (John 19:20). Jesus “suffered without the gate” (Heb. 13:12). (3) It was a place designated “of a skull, which is called in the Hebrew Golgotha” (John 19:17). This is called in Luke 23:33, ‘Calvary,’ but this also signifies ‘a skull.’ From these references we learn that the true site of the sepulchre must be near to a place suitable for the execution, and near to a garden in which a sepulchre could he hewn. It is never called a ‘mount’ or ‘hill’ in Scripture, though often so called in poetry. The Bordeaux Pilgrim called it ‘Monticulus Golgotha.’

Some engaged in the explorations in Israel believe traces of the second wall have been found which show pretty clearly that the present site was not outside the city walls at the time of the Lord.

Great stress is laid upon the record that Constantine the Great, or his mother Helena, as early as about A.D. 320, built a church on the present site; it is thought that at that early date the true place must have been known. But tradition says that the site was miraculously pointed out, and that the true cross was found there. Another account says that three crosses were found, and the inscription also, but detached: the true cross was discovered by its healing a sick woman! Does not this prove that it was not well known at that time, or no pretended miracle would have been needed to disclose it?

If it be conceded that the situation has been handed down, of what value is that? The site of the Ascension is said to have been handed down from the time of the apostles; and that it was on the summit of the mount of Olives; and that Helena built a chapel there. No doubt a chapel was built there; but we know it is not the true site, for in Luke 24:50-51, we read that our Lord led the disciples out as far as to Bethany, and blessed them; and while He blessed them He was parted from them and carried up into heaven. Acts 1:12 seems to imply that the ascension was from Mount Olivet, but adds that it was a sabbath day’s journey from Jerusalem (that is, three-quarters of a mile). The mount is nearer than this, and Bethany is farther. Bethany may be said to be built on the eastern declivity of the Mount of Olives: it is most probable that our Lord ascended from a retired spot on some part of the mount near Bethany, and not from so public a place as the summit.

As to the Holy Sepulchre, the Jews fix the site on the north of the city, at the place marked as the ‘Grotto of Jeremiah,’ and it is said that near that spot certain rocks, seen from a distance, much resemble a human skull.

May we not well believe that the true site of the sepulchre has been hidden by God that it should not be regarded as a source of sanctity and blessing. The contention, strife, and bloodshed over the possession of the present site should convince all unprejudiced persons that instead of any blessing being attached to the place, it is rather a curse.

And this is not confined to the place simply. Let any one witness the crowd of professing Christians at Easter, with their candles — many waiting as long as ten hours for the ‘holy fire’ (supposed to be sent from heaven), and then the eager contention and hustling (‘like furies,’ though some are women with infants) to light their candles — he might well wonder what such a scene could have to do with Christianity! It is as much as the Turkish guards can do to keep the crowds in anything like order and prevent them trampling one another under foot. How contemptible must such an exhibition professedly Christian appear to the poor Mahometans. To make the ceremony appear a reality, a horseman, waiting at the gate of the church, gallops off with a lighted torch to communicate the fire to the lamps of the Greek convent at Bethlehem! The Roman Catholics have now nothing to do with the ‘holy fire,’ and denounce it as a delusion: but their own mode of keeping Easter at Jerusalem is even more revolting. With an image of the Saviour a dramatic representation of the crucifixion, burial, and resurrection of the Lord is gone through in detail. Would it not be well if the whole building were destroyed, as Hezekiah destroyed the brazen serpent, because the children of Israel burnt incense to it (2 Kings 18:4)?

Scripture speaks of the mountains round about Jerusalem (Psa. 125:2) as its security: “So the Lord is round about His people from henceforth even for ever.” It will be seen in a map that there are valleys and mountains on three sides of the city; so that any attack upon it would always have been made on the north, where the ground is comparatively level.

On the east is the valley of Jehoshaphat, with the brook Kidron running at the bottom, though the brook is really dry, except after heavy rains, and then is soon dry again.

On the south is the valley of Hinnom. Where this valley joins the Valley of Jehoshaphat is held to be the place where the children were burnt in the fire to Moloch. It was defiled by Josiah, and became the depository of all kinds of refuse and filth, which was burnt by a perpetual fire, and thus became a type of hell (Gehenna) as a place of torment. On the west is the valley of Gihon.

The mount on the east of the city is the Mount of Olives, from which the best view of the city can be had.

To the south of the Mount of Olives is the Mount of Offence, so called because it is supposed that Solomon there practiced idol worship.

On the south of the city is the Hill of Evil Council, so called because it is said that Caiaphas had a villa there, in which the Jews took counsel to put our Lord to death. But for these things and the names of places there is nothing but tradition.

Though Jerusalem, as foretold in Scripture, has been laid in heaps (Jer. 9:11), being wholly or in great part destroyed seventeen times, yet apparently some of the stones are the original stones of the foundation walls, which may have been displaced and afterward relaid. They are very large, one measures 24 feet long, 6 feet broad, and 3 feet high. Round the edges of the ancient stones is a narrow band made smooth, while all the rest of the surface is left rough, but beautifully square and straight, so that no filling up was needed. It is judged that there are four different ways in which the stones have been dressed, marking four different periods of construction.

The ruins are of great depth, from the city having been destroyed so many times; and houses are built upon the former ruins, which indeed seems to have been foretold in Jeremiah 30:18: “I will bring again the captivity of Jacob’s tents, and have mercy on his dwelling places; and the city shall be builded upon her own heap, and the palace shall remain after the manner thereof.”

About 100 yards east of the Damascus Gate is the entrance to an extensive quarry, which extends a long way under the city. Its great size, cut in the solid rock, shows that an immense quantity of stone has been extracted. There is also proof that a great deal of the dressing of the stones was effected in the quarry by the immense quantity of small chips; as if indeed the stones of Solomon’s temple had been cut and prepared there, ready for fixing in their places (1 Kings 6:7). Little blackened nooks show where the lamps were placed, by the light of which the workmen laboured. The marks of the chisels and picks are plainly to be seen, and some blocks are only partially separated: all looking as if the workmen had simply left for the night, except that there are no tools lying about. There seems evidence to show that the blocks of stone were partially cut round, that wood was then rammed into the crevices, and this by being saturated with water forced away the block.

Many passages speak of Jerusalem as being rebuilt, when “it shall not be plucked up, nor thrown down any more for ever” (Jer. 31:38-40). “Thus saith the Lord of hosts; There shall yet old men and old women dwell in the streets of Jerusalem, and every man with his staff in his hand for very age. And the streets of the city shall be full of boys and girls playing in the streets thereof” (Zech. 8:4-5).

As we learn from Scripture, the temple will be again rebuilt, but on a spot farther north, in a place called most holy and set apart for the priests: adjoining this will be the portion for the Levites, a holy portion; and adjoining this a profane (or common) place, in the midst of which will stand Jerusalem (Ezek. 48:8-20).

Pic Image 344

	MOST HOLY [SANCTUARY.] PORTION,
	FOR THE PRIESTS.
FOR THE PRINCE.	HOLY PORTION,	FOR THE PRINCE.
FOR THE PRINCE.	FOR THE LEVITES.	FOR THE PRINCE.
	COMMON [CITY.] PLACE.

It will be seen that the passage does not say whether ‘reeds’ or ‘cubits’ is the measure intended. The first measure named is an enlarged cubit, embracing a cubit and a hand breadth (Ezek. 40:5), and where no measure is named cubits may be meant, ‘reeds’ being specified where reeds are intended. Ezekiel 45:3 is more definite: verse 2 has just named cubits, and verse 3 says, “Of this measure shalt thou measure the length of five and twenty thousand” etc. The most holy portion is 25,000 by 10,000, in which is to be the sanctuary. The next portion for the Levites is of the same measurements. The most southern part is 25,000 by 5,000, in which is to be the city of Jerusalem.

It may seem strange that the sanctuary should be thus separated from Jerusalem and Mount Zion, but they are really connected, for of the whole of the above space (namely 25,000 by 25,000) it is said, “Ye shall offer the holy oblation foursquare, with the possession of the city” (Ezek. 48:20). Though in one sense the portion for the city is called ‘common,’ yet it is really a part of the ‘holy oblation.’ Isaiah 2:2-3; Micah 3:12-4:2 also speak of the temple, Zion, and Jerusalem being associated together.

If the cubit be taken to be 21 inches, and the handbreadth be a sixth of this, the enlarged cubit would be 24½ inches, and the whole oblation would be about ten miles square, which would allow two miles north to south for the city and its suburbs; four miles for the Levites; and four miles for the sanctuary and its suburbs.

The size of the city itself would be 4,500 cubits, about 1.8 mile on each side, leaving a margin all round, with a large space east and west, for its suburbs (Ezek. 48:30-35), as may be seen in the diagram.

In Ezekiel 40, where the future temple is described, before its details are given, the prophet is set upon a very high mountain, “by which was as the frame of a city on the south” (verse 2), showing that the temple and the city are connected, and pointing out the direction in which the city was situated towards the temple.

On each side of the ‘holy oblation’ east and west there is a large space for the prince. The width of the land near Jerusalem from the sea to the river is about fifty miles. There will be physical changes in Israel and Jerusalem in coming days, living waters will flow from the city, half of them running into the Western Sea, and half of them into the Eastern Sea: see Zechariah 14:8-10.

The prophecy of Ezekiel closes with the joyful news: “the name of the city from that day shall be, The Lord is there.”

Jerusalem

Fallen is thy throne, O Israel!

Silence is o’er thy plains;

Thy dwellings all lie desolate,

Thy children weep in chains.

Where are the dews that fed thee

On Etham’s barren shore?

That fire from heaven that led thee

Now lights thy path no more.

Lord, Thou didst love Jerusalem;

Once she was all Thine own:

Her love Thy fairest heritage,

Her power Thy glory’s throne,

Till evil came and blighted

Thy long-loved olive-tree,

And Salem’s shrines were lighted

For other gods than Thee.

Then sank the star of Solyma,

Then pass’d her glory’s day,

Like heath that in the wilderness

The light wind whirls away.

Silent and waste her bowers,

Where once the mighty trode;

And sunk those guilty towers

Where Baal reign’d as God.

“Go,” said the Lord, “ye conquerors,

Steep in her blood your swords,

And raze to earth her battlements,

For they are not the Lord’s.

Tell Zion’s mournful daughter

O’er kindred bones she’ll tread,

And Hinnom’s vale of slaughter

Shall hide but half her dead.”

But soon shall other pictured scenes

In brighter vision rise,

When Zion’s sun shall sevenfold shine

On all her mourner’s eyes;

And on her mountains beauteous stand

The messengers of peace;

“Salvation by the Lord’s right hand,”

They shout and never cease.

Moore

Its Names

The City of the Great King Psa. 48:2

The City of God Psa. 46:4

The City of the Lord Isa. 60:14

A City of Truth Zech. 8:3

The City of Righteousness Isa. 1:26

The Faithful City Isa. 1:21

The Holy City Isa. 48:2

The City of Judah 2 Chron. 25:28

The City of David 2 Sam. 5:7

The City of Solemnities Isa. 33:20

The Throne of the Lord Jer. 3:17

The Lord is there Ezek. 48:35

The Zion of the Holy One of Israel Isa. 60:14

Salem (Genesis 14:18), Jebus Josh. 15:8

Described

Its palaces and towers Psa. 48:13

Its walls, gates, and bulwarks Isa. 26:1

Its wealth, population, industry Isa. 22

Its idolatry, wickedness, religion Lam. 1, 2

Its geographical situation Psa. 48:2

Its Future

Greatly enlarged

Greatly beautified

Largely populated

The earth’s metropolis

Its people saved and righteous

Universal center of blessing

Its riches and wealth

Characterized by holiness

The Gentiles build its walls

Its gates ever open

Served by nations and kingdoms

An eternal excellency

Joy of many generations

The Queen in gold of Ophir

A place of perfect security

Jehovah its rest and glory

Longevity of its inhabitants

Peace within its borders

No more weeping

No more sickness

No more idolatry

No more death

Jerusalem’s future is the special testimony of the Hebrew Prophets (see especially that magnificent millennial description, Isaiah 60).

Besieged

By Shishak, king of Egypt 2 Chron. 12:1-4

By Jehoash, king of Israel 2 Kings 14:13-14

By Rezin and Pekah 2 Kings 16:5

By Sennacherib 2 Kings 18:17

By Pharaoh-Necho 2 Kings 23:33-35

By Nebuchadnezzar once 2 Kings 24:1

By Nebuchadnezzar twice 2 Kings 24:10-11

By Nebuchadnezzar three 2 Kings 25

By Titus Luke 21

History records no less than thirty-four instances of Jerusalem being besieged. Besides the foregoing, Jerusalem has been attacked by the Grecians, Syrians, Egyptians, Parthians, Romans, and Europeans.

Its Desolation

Trodden down Luke 21:24

Plowed as a field Jer. 26:18

Reduced to ruins Isa. 25:2

Not one stone left upon another Mark 13:2

A wilderness and desolation Jer. 25:18

Forsaken and hated Isa. 60:15

Under Divine judgment Lam. 1

Restored Jerusalem

Jerusalem, when reconstructed anew, will cover the site of the old and present city, but will be greatly enlarged, probably occupying with its suburbs and gardens an area of about fifty miles (Ezek. 48), and lying between the portions assigned to Judah and Benjamin. The city proper, will probably be about thirty-six miles in circumference. The millennial temple will be built anew from its foundation, and according to Divine patterns and measurements — not on the site of the old one, nor on that to be erected and afterward destroyed, upon the removal of the church to heaven. Zechariah 14, also the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, supply particulars of deep and abiding interest as to the Jewish future.

“Joy to His ancient people!

Your bonds He comes to sever —

And now, ‘tis done! the Lord hath won,

And ye are free forever.”

Edom

Edom extended from the Dead Sea on the north to the Elanitic Gulf [Aqaba] on the south, the eastern arm of the Red Sea. It was about one hundred miles in length, and about twenty miles broad. The country, although not wanting in rich meadows and fertile plains, was, yet on the whole, a mountainous one, rising in some places to an altitude of 3000 feet. It was anciently a kingdom of considerable importance and figures largely in prophecy and history, the ruins of no less than thirty towns, and that within a three days’ journey of the Red Sea, fully attest to the eyes of the western world the position which Edom at one time occupied.

The Edomites were governed by dukes and kings long before Israel was formed into a kingdom (Gen. 36), and maintained a haughty independence until subdued by David, after an immense slaughter of its people. The country was then garrisoned, and the Edomites became tributary to David (1 Chron. 18:12-13); afterward a deputy was appointed for its government under the Judean kings (1 Kings 22:47). Hadad, an Edomite, singularly preserved from the almost universal massacre of his countrymen by Joab (1 Kings 11:14-25), attempted in vain to regain his country’s independence. They revolted on several occasions, but suffered a terrible check under Amaziah, king of Judah, who took their principal city, Sela, and cruelly killed ten thousand of the people. The awful cliffs and precipitous rocks, some of which rise to a height of a thousand feet, were the scene of a truly dreadful deed. Ten thousand of the Edomites, spared from the destruction under Amaziah, were led up to the top of their own heights, and then cast down to the awful depths beneath (2 Chron. 25:11-12). It was a cruel act, and although the Edomites were Israel’s bitterest enemies, and the people against whom Jehovah hath a perpetual hatred, yet without direct Divine sanction, such a mode of stamping out a revolt is indefensible. After the destruction of their renowned and almost impregnable city, Sela, better known as Petra, the cities Teman and Bozrah, became important centers of commerce, and are frequently referred to in the Prophets. It was in the harbors of Edom on the Red Sea, then under Israel, that Solomon built and equipped, a navy, which brought the produce of the south and east to Jerusalem.

Again and again was Edom “impoverished” and her mountains laid waste by Israel, and as often did she resolve to return and build her desolate places, but in vain, for they are “the people against whom the Lord hath indignation for ever” (Mal. 1:1-4). They were closely allied to Israel, being the descendants of Esau, Jacob’s brother. The seeds of discord sown between the brothers, the founders of the nations of Israel and Edom (Gen. 27), in course of time ripened into open and determined hostility on the part of the Edomites. Their haughty refusal to allow their brethren of Israel to pass through their country out of the Arabian desert, although permission to do so was most courteously requested (Num. 20:14-21), was the first decided act of animosity. Their hatred to the people of Jehovah’s choice intensified as time wore on, and at the capture of Jerusalem by the Babylonians, the Edomites voluntarily joined the besiegers, and greatly rejoiced in the opportunity afforded them of wreaking their vengeance on the land and people of Judah. “Rase it, rase it, even to the foundation thereof” (Psa. 137:7) was the bitter cry of the Edomites, as they eagerly hastened to assist in the destruction of Jerusalem. Alas! the Chaldeans needed no such cry to urge them on in executing judgment upon the guilty city. Jehovah says, “I am very sore displeased with the heathen that are at ease: for I was but a little displeased, and they helped forward the affliction” (Zech. 1:15). The help the Edomites afforded the Chaldeans in the ever memorable invasion of Judea and successful capture of Jerusalem, with their exultation and triumph on the complete downfall of the kingdom, is the great burden of the prophet Obadiah, and forms the main ground of judgment upon the land and people of Idumea, foretold by the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, Jeremiah, and others. On the deportation of Judah to Babylon, the Edomites took possession of Judean territory on the south. The degradation of Judah was complete, and the triumph of the Edomite also, when not only Judea became a mere province of the Roman Empire, being governed by a procurator sent from the imperial city, but when in Jerusalem itself, sat a race of Idumean kings. After the sack and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, Edom or Idumea disappears from the page of history until the time of the Crusaders, who, seeing its importance in a military point of view, entered it on several occasions, and built a pretty strong fortress, ten or twelve miles from Petra. From that time till the year 1812, when the traveller Buckhardt, wandering in the desolate regions of the east, accidentally discovered Petra — the ancient country of Edom was quite unknown. The English people have now been made acquainted with that grand region of departed greatness from the splendid drawings and sketches which successive travellers from the year 1828 have furnished.

Is the cry of the Edomite hushed forever? Will those rock-hewn dwellings ever again be inhabited? Will those mountain fastnesses be occupied, those precipitous cliffs ever be scaled, those awful and gloomy defiles again trod by the descendants of its ancient inhabitants? Yes. And here we turn, gladly turn, to the precious pages of Inspiration, in which the veil is lifted as to Edom’s future doom. The prophetic lamp is turned to the Mount of Seir, once more occupied by the people having a “perpetual hatred” to Israel (Ezek. 35:5). It is only of recent date that the fearless children of the Desert could be prevailed upon to pass through the gloomy recesses of Petra, and then only during daylight. The whole district is one shunned and dreaded by the Arabs, who regard it as specially under the ban of the Divine displeasure, and in this they are right (Ezek. 35:9; 25:13). But the might and wisdom of Edom will again be gathered on her mountains, and play her part in the scenes of the coming crisis. From the prophet Daniel, chapter 11, we learn that the future king of the North (then occupying the present Asiatic possessions of the Sultan) will assault the nations lying contiguous to the Holy Land, but Edom, Moab, and Ammon will escape out of his hand, while the stronger and more powerful country of “Egypt shall not escape” (Dan. 11:40-43). Why is Edom spared? Why is not full and final judgment then executed upon that proud and bitterly hostile people to Israel? Why? because the sword of Jehovah must first be bathed in the land of Idumea, and the glorious apparel of the Conqueror stained in the blood of its people (Isa. 63:1-6). But besides this awful judgment which the Lord will alone execute (Isa. 63:5) in accomplishing the redemption of His earthly people, there is another reason why Edom escapes the vengeance of the king of the North, or “the Assyrian.” The prophets Isaiah (chapter 11:14) and Ezekiel (chapter 25:14) foretold that these very nations, Edom, Moab, and Ammon, were to be destroyed by Israel in the day that her captivity is turned by Jehovah, and so the prophetic lamp reveals their doom.

The discoveries of travellers in late years in the mountains and plains of Edom have brought to light numerous interesting facts bearing upon the history of that people — a history more ancient even than that of Israel’s. These ruins “present such a collection of novelties as can be seen nowhere else on this globe.” The first historical notice in Scripture of Edom is in Genesis 14:6, where Edom is called “Mount Seir,” the name of the progenitor of the Horites, the original inhabitants of the country; the last historical notice of Edom is in Malachi 1, and between these, the first and last books of the Old Testament, the notices regarding it are very numerous. The capital of this very ancient kingdom is one of the grandest sights in the east. What a full and corroborative testimony to the written Word of God is furnished by these grand and solitary ruins. The cliffs and perpendicular rocks, rising from 80 to 250 feet — the ruined temples, with their solitary Corinthian pillars and really handsome architecture and masonry — the theatre cut out of the solid rock, and evidently seated to contain from three to four thousand spectators — the numerous chambers, rooms, and recesses cut out of the front of these overhanging cliffs, and other monumental remains too numerous to mention, make Petra one of the grandest spectacles in these eastern lands. Why have those rock-hewn dwellings, tombs, and stately edifices stood amidst the general crash? Empires have risen, flourished, and fallen; but here is a kingdom, hoary with age, whose antiquity is unquestionable, standing before us after a history of nigh 4000 years, a silent, standing and eloquent protest against the unbelief of the nineteenth century. Has God preserved these noble ruins from decay merely to feast the eyes of the traveller with their rare grandeur? Nay, the attacks now so freely hurled against the Pentateuch and Prophets, are sternly rebuked by the incontestable evidence of their Divine inspiration, furnished by the ruins of Petra.

The discovery of this old city from the era of the ‘Crusades’ by the traveller Burckhardt, afterward visited by Laborde, and since fully described by pen and pencil by succeeding explorers, is thus spoken of by Dr. Kitto in his Bible Illustrations: —

“Of the Edomites not even a name remains; and their city has for ages remained broken and desolate. The very site, indeed, was long uncertain, and its place was undetermined in the maps. But, as in the index which closes a book, the various events of centuries are crowded into a few pages: so in these latter days, events that used to be spread over centuries are crowded together into days and years, and the old world history seems tame to the history we live. In this wonderful age events come in ‘multitudes — multitudes to the valley of decision’; and old nations and cities — Egypt, Assyria, Edom; Thebes, Nineveh, Petra — are called forth from their tombs... Edom was called — and Petra answered to her name. There she stands, beautiful in her coat of many colours; yet empty, and void, and waste... Singularly beautiful even in ruin, and with the freshness of youth still upon her brow, the utter desolation in which the ‘daughter of Edom’ lies shut up amidst the silence of her mountains, is most impressive, and even affecting. But all this was foreseen and foretold with great distinctness by the prophets; and these fearful denunciations and their exact fulfilment furnish an invulnerable argument for the inspiration of the Scriptures; while the present state of the rich and beautiful region in which Edom dwelt, is a most awful monument of the Lord’s displeasure against idolatry and wickedness... With the book (Malachi) containing this prediction concerning Edom, the roll of Old Testament prophecy closes.”

Its Names

ITS NAMES		EDOM’S PAST RELATION TO ISRAEL
Edom	Isa. 63:1	Israel refused a passage through Edom
Idumea	Isa. 34:6
Dumah	Isa. 21:11	Saul and David warred against them
Mount Seir	Ezek. 35:2	Rebelled against the authority of Solomon
Mount of Esau	Oba. 21
		Leagued with others against Jehoshaphat
ITS CITIES
Bozrah	Amos 1:12	Threw off the yoke of Joram, King of Judah
Teman	Ezek. 25:13
Ezion-Geber	1 Kings 9:26	Amaziah’s destruction of the Edomites
Dedan	Jer. 49:8
Petra	Isa. 16:1 (see margin)	Rebelled against Ahaz
ITS PEOPLE		Actively helped the Babylonians in the Jerusalem attack
Were Israel’s brethren	Num. 20:14
Were cruel, proud, mighty, wise	Jer. 49	EDOM’S FUTURE
Were hated of Jehovah	Mal. 1:3	Slaughter of the Gentiles on her mountains.
Were haters of Israel	Oba. 10
		Her wise and mighty to be utterly destroyed.
WERE GOVERNED
By Dukes or Chiefs, then by Kings, then by Deputy		Judah the instrument of Jehovah’s vengeance.
		Full destruction of her people.
THE COUNTRY		The country to belong to Israel.
Rocky and Mountainous	Jer. 49	Judgment and deliverance on the Mount.
Exceedingly fertile	Gen. 27:39
Strongly fortified	Psa. 60:9	See the prophets Obadiah, Isaiah, and Ezekiel
Contiguous to Judea	Num. 20

Judges of Israel

Paul in his summary of Israelitish history (Acts 13) says — ”And after that He gave unto them judges about the space of four hundred and fifty years, until Samuel the prophet” (Acts 13:20). In the following list we have not included Eli, who exercised the priestly functions as well as judging in a civil capacity; nor Samuel, who, while ruling Israel, also filled the prophetic office. We have noted only those recorded in the book of Judges — from Othniel to Samson.

These judges were extraordinary deliverers raised up by God from time to time, in answer to His people’s cries and tears. Their condition was most deplorable. The wonders of God in Egypt and at the Red Sea; and the still more recent marvel of the Jordan affording a dry passage into Canaan, with all the forty years’ story of grace in the wilderness were fading from their memories, and certainly losing their freshness and power in their souls. Departure from the Lord is ever the effect of resting upon the demonstrations of Jehovah’s love and care, instead of knowing and resting upon that love itself. In order to recover the wandering heart of Israel, and wean the people from the idolatry and sin of the surrounding heathen, they were delivered into the hands of the nations whom they had failed to drive out; there to learn through bitter experience the folly of departing from the living God. Upon their repentance, God raised up a class of saviours, who, in themselves, and by their mode and way of deliverance, were fitted to humble Israel, and, besides, vindicate the sovereignty and grace of Jehovah.

1. Othniel, Lion of God. (Judg. 3:5-11)

It was out of Mesopotamia that Israel’s great progenitor was called (Acts 7:2-3); and into the hands of that power Israel was first delivered. This period of servitude lasted eight years. The deliverer from Mesopotamian bondage was Othniel, whose courage and valour was put to the test in the capture of the strong city Kirjath-sepher; and, as reward, received Caleb’s daughter, Achsah, to wife (Josh. 15:15-17). Forty years’ rest was the result of the mighty deliverance wrought by “Caleb’s younger brother.” The sovereignty of God in the choice of a younger brother is not to be overlooked.

2. Ehud, Unity. (Judg. 3:12-30)

The second captivity lasted eighteen years, and that under a people peculiarly obnoxious to Israel, whose origin was disgraceful (Gen. 19), and who were forever debarred from entering into the congregation of the Lord (Deut. 23:3-6). As in the previous deliverance, a forty years’ rest and quiet was secured, so by this second intervention of Jehovah in the judgment of Moab and deliverance of His people, they enjoyed a rest of 80 years. The deceit practiced upon the fat King of Moab, and the extermination of all the men of war — ten thousand in all — may be safely left as written. The Word of God records facts, states things as they occurred, neither explaining nor defending the actions of men. God makes the wrath of man to praise Him, and so turned to the blessing of His people the death of Eglon, King of Moab, and his men of war. The sovereignty of God in the choice of Ehud, a “left-handed” man, is once more observable.

3. Shamgar. (Judg. 3:31)

The Philistines next come upon the scene as the oppressors of the southern tribes of Israel. How long this third captivity lasted, or how long Shamgar judged Israel, we are not informed. The whole history of this time is briefly summed up in one verse. The bold and daring exploit of Shamgar killing 600 Philistines with an ox-goad reminds us of the doings of Samson amongst that same people; and one cannot fail to remark upon the sovereignty of the mode of deliverance. Who ever heard of victories obtained over a brave and warlike people by the use of such an instrument as an ox-goad, and that, too, wielded by a single arm? One man successfully opposing and overcoming 600!

4. Deborah and Barak, bee, lightning. (Judg. 4, 5)

The tribes located in northern Canaan now come under the cruel and iron yoke of Jabin, king of Canaan, who for twenty years “mightily oppressed Israel.” This king seems to have had a large army, well supplied with war chariots, and commanded by an able and experienced captain. The Israelites, on the contrary, could oppose no cavalry to the 900 iron chariots of Sisera, nor could a weapon of war be found amongst 40,000 of the people (Judg. 5:8). But what of the mighty host of Sisera or his iron chariots, were they ever so strong and countless? Dare the puny arm of man be bared in presence of Jehovah’s power? The cry of the oppressed people again enters the ear of God, and He raises up an instrument which certainly reflected no honour upon Israel. Deborah, a woman, not only judged the people, but also prophesied in the Lord’s name, so that the moral condition of the people could scarcely be lower. Barak, the son of Abinoam, refused to take the leadership of the Lord’s host, save as directed by, and in the presence of, a woman (Judg. 4:8-9). The truly humbling death of the Canaanitish captain, and the utter destruction, even to a man, of his mighty army, covered with renown the name of the Lord of Hosts (Judg. 5). A forty years’ quiet was the result of this mighty victory.

5. Gideon, Breaker. (Judg. 6-8)

The next oppression was from the east. The Midianites, a powerful people, were joined by the Amalekites and the nomadic tribes of the desert, who, with their camels and cattle entered the land in countless numbers, and pitched their tents in the very heart of the country. Plunder was evidently the object of this motley host; “they entered the land to destroy it.” In a short time they turned a large portion of the fairest part of the country almost into a desert, sweeping away the growing crops and removing all the beasts of burden and domestic animals. The heavily burdened and cruelly oppressed people had to flee from their dwellings and betake themselves for safety to the mountains. This awful time of distress lasted seven years, when the people again turning to Jehovah were faithfully addressed by a prophet whose name is not recorded. Then Gideon was raised up, but first he must clear his father’s house of idolatry ere he could become a suited vessel in Jehovah’s hands for the deliverance of the people. The moral training to which Gideon was subjected, is well worthy of being carefully pondered by those serving in the church of God, while the numbers, manner, and instruments employed in the glorious and complete discomfiture of the mighty and numerous hosts opposed to Israel, conspicuously displayed the weakness of man and the power of Jehovah. What a lesson we learn in that 300 tried and tested men approached the host of Midian with neither sword nor spear in hand! The broken pitchers were the fitting expression of human weakness; and the trumpets giving forth their blast were a call to Jehovah as in ancient days, when it was said — ”Rise up, Lord, and let Thine enemies be scattered; and let them that hate Thee flee before Thee” (Num. 10:35). As the result of the mighty victory gained over Midian and his confederates, another forty years’ peace was secured. The total inability of man to hold himself in the place of blessing is sorrowfully demonstrated in the closing years of Gideon’s administration. His sun, which rose so fair, went down in a dark back-ground of worldliness and idolatry (Judg. 8:24-27).

6. Abimelech, Father of the King. (Judg. 9)

The signal deliverance obtained over the allied forces of Midian kindled quite a loyal feeling among the men of Israel. They entreated Gideon to assume the royal prerogative, and to transmit the same to his sons, of whom he had a goodly number, “three score and ten.” Most nobly was the proffered crown rejected, and Jehovah’s rule over the people maintained: “I will not rule over you, neither shall my son rule over you: the Lord shall rule over you” (Judg. 8:22-23). It would have been well for the people of Shechem, and well, too, for Abimelech if he had caught the spirit of his father. But ambition and love of power obtained the mastery in the mind of Abimelech, who of all the sons of Gideon had least right to assume royal or other power in Israel, being the son of a concubine. By craft he secured the good-will of the inhabitants of Shechem, and then cruelly murdered, “upon one stone,” his sixty-eight brothers, Jotham, the youngest, escaping. Abimelech was the first person in Israel who usurped royal power. It was on the occasion of Abimelech’s accession to the throne, when the elders and men of Shechem were gathered in the valley beneath, that Jotham, standing on a commanding position on the cliffs above, addressed to the assembled congregation the most ancient parable recorded. It was a keen, pointed home-thrust to the conscience of both king and people.

Craft and cruelty inaugurated Abimelech’s accession to the throne; but a throne established on iniquity and blood cannot prosper, as the men of Shechem found to their cost, as also the king, who died a shameful and humbling death, especially so regarded by an eastern monarch, and that after a short-lived, troublesome reign of but three years (Judg. 9:3-57).

7. Tola, Worm. (Judg. 10:1-2)

The next defender of Israel was Tola, of whose actions, and of the state of the people during the twenty-three years of his administration we know nothing. His parentage is given, and where he dwelt and died, but nothing more.

8. Jair, whom God enlightens. (Judg. 10:3-5)

The successor of Tola occupied the territory east of the Jordan, in the country of Gilead. He seems to have been a man fond of pomp and display, and withal very ambitious, as in the brief record we are told that his thirty sons rode on “thirty ass colts,” and they had “thirty cities” termed “Havoth-Jair,” meaning the cities or villages of Jair. Three verses have been deemed sufficient by the recording Spirit to chronicle the twenty-two years of Jair’s administration.

9. Jephthah, the Opener. (Judg. 10:6-12:7)

Israel again lapsed into idolatry. The debasing, cruel, and generally obscene rites which formed an integral part of heathen worship amongst the nations in and surrounding the land of Canaan were quickly learned and practiced by the people, to whom it was said by God Himself, “Thou shalt have no other gods before Me” (Ex. 20:3). The anger of Jehovah burned hot against His people, and He delivered them into the hands of the Philistines and Ammonites; the former people oppressed the tribes lying south and west, while the latter not only crushed those on the eastern boundary of the Jordan, but crossed over the river, and made the tribes of Ephraim, Judah, and Benjamin also suffer. This double and sore oppression lasted eighteen years. Once again, the deliverer arises from the land of Gilead, and from a quarter which least of all reflected honour upon Israel. Jephthah, the son of a harlot — a degree worse even than the parentage of Abimelech, son of a concubine — and expelled from home by his indignant brethren, had gathered around him a troop of bold, bad men, who lived by making raids or incursions into the surrounding parts of the country. This was the man who, in the wisdom and sovereignty of God, was destined to deliver Israel from a captivity of eighteen years. Jephthah, with all his shortcomings, was yet a man who turned to God; personally “a mighty man of valour,” yet he did not rely on the strength or bravery of his arm to accomplish deliverance for Israel, but “vowed a vow unto the Lord, and said, If Thou shalt without fail deliver the children of Ammon into mine hands.” Jephthah judged Israel six years.

10. Ibzan, illustrious. (Judg. 12:8-10)

The only incident recorded about this judge is that he had an equal number of sons and daughters, and, failing to get them married at home, he procured elsewhere thirty daughters for his thirty sons, and sent away his daughters where they could more readily obtain husbands. Ibzan was buried at Bethlehem, after a judgeship of seven years.

11. Elon, Oak. (Judg. 12:11-12)

The next judge was Elon, who directed the affairs of his country for ten years. Nothing is known of this ruler, save that he was a Zebulonite.

12. Abdon, Servile. (Judg. 12:13-15)

Again the record is brief, and the materials exceedingly scanty, but enough is told us to warrant the conclusion that Abdon was a man fond of display, and bent upon the aggrandizement of his family, for not only were his sons privileged to ride on ass colts, but so were his nephews. This honourable distinction was conferred upon seventy members of his family. Abdon judged Israel eight years.

13. Sampson, Sun. (Judg. 13-16)

The circumstances narrated previous to the birth of Samson are interesting and instructive. Probably, with the exception of Isaac, he is the only one whose birth was announced before-hand, at least the only one recorded in the Old Testament. Samson was a Nazarite from his birth, and although many of his actions and ways were erratic, still so long as he preserved his Nazariteship intact, he was invincible. Practical separation from an evil world is the Christian’s only power for God, and the moment he sinks down to the level of things around, he can only become the sport of an unbelieving world, and, robbed of his strength, become weak as water. With Israel, so with the Christian. We can never be on a level with the world. Israel never did stand on equal terms with the surrounding nations; either she formed a footstool for their feet, or they were in as perfect and thorough subjection to her. As Israel walked with and confided in Jehovah, her place amongst the nations was one of headship and supremacy; but when she sank into idolatry and wickedness, she forfeited her exalted, national standing, and became a downtrodden and tributary people. What a lesson to us in all this! Israel was under the rigorous rule of their old and bitter enemies — the Philistines, then in the zenith of their power, for forty years — the longest captivity recorded. During the twenty years of Samson’s administration, he seems to have been but feebly, if at all, supported by the nation. The acts of individual prowess are truly wonderful, and have never been equalled, much less surpassed, but Samson falls before the seductions of nature, and although classed amongst the judges who are held in everlasting remembrance (Heb. 11:32), yet, the close of his eventful life is full of solemn warning and instruction. Beware of nature’s enticements; beware of tampering with the world from which ye have been delivered (Gal. 1:4).

Kingdom of Heaven, Kingdom of God and the Church

On the subject of the kingdom we observe that the inspired writers have been led of God to use a variety of expressions. Thus we read of ‘the kingdom,’ ‘the kingdom of God,’ ‘the kingdom of heaven,’ ‘kingdom of our Lord,’ etc. and it well becomes us to seek to understand the different terms.

It was foretold in Daniel 2:44, “And in the days of these kings [the fourth kingdom, the Roman Empire] shall the God of heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be destroyed: and the kingdom shall not be left to other people, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand for ever.” See also Daniel 7.

The God of Israel, who formerly had His throne of earthly government at Jerusalem, but in consequence of the sin of the house of David had withdrawn His glory to heaven and transferred the power to Gentiles in Nebuchadnezzar for a season, would ultimately replace Israel by His own direct rule from heaven. Notice that the title GOD OF HEAVEN is only found after the captivity.

The Lord announced the kingdom when on earth. This answered to the time noted above, inasmuch as it was during the existence of the Roman Empire, though it did not at that time consume it: that is still future. The rejection of Messiah by the Jews has put off till later times the kingdom in power.

The Lord Jesus spoke of the kingdom of heaven and of the kingdom of God. The parable of the leaven is referred to the kingdom of heaven in Matthew 13:33, and to the kingdom of God in Luke 13:20; yet the terms are not interchangeable, indeed we find the expression ‘kingdom of heaven,’ or rather ‘the kingdom of the heavens,’ in the Gospel by Matthew only, which surely gives a dispensational character to that title. Israel was expecting an earthly kingdom, and in due time they will possess such, but it will be on the basis of the new covenant; the Lord directed their eyes to the kingdom of the heavens. They must look to heaven for present and future blessing.

Both John the Baptist and the Lord preached that the kingdom of the heavens was at hand, and required a moral preparedness for it; but it was no sooner announced than it was opposed. The rulers did not receive it, nor suffered others to do so, as far as they could prevent it. We may say that the kingdom of the heavens really began when Christ ascended to heaven; for the force of the expression is the seat of authority, not the sphere of the rule; as it is said, England rules India.

The term ‘Kingdom of God’ is used in a wider sense, and often in a moral sense. The point is, whose rule it is, namely, God’s. The authority is in the hands of the Lord Jesus; hence ‘the kingdom of Christ.’ It may be said to have been brought in when Christ began His ministry in the sense that ‘the kingdom of God is among you,’ for the King was present in their midst for their acceptance; but He was rejected, and the kingdom was not established. Our Lord said He would not drink of the fruit of the vine until He drank it new (that is, after a new order) in the kingdom of God, and He taught His disciples to pray, “Thy kingdom come.” It is now, therefore, “the kingdom and patience” (Rev. 1:9); by-and-by it will be the kingdom in power. Christ is represented as having gone to receive a kingdom and to return (Luke 19:12).

Still, while our Lord is away, the kingdom goes on in its mysterious form (Matt. 13). There are those who profess obedience to God and to the Lord Jesus, and who look to the heavens as the throne from whence come all their blessings, whilst living in this world of which Satan is the god.

The parables explain to us the nature of the kingdom while the Lord is away, and show us that there are not only true, but false ones in the kingdom: Satan introduces the latter, whereas the former are described as those that “hear the Word, and receive it, and bring forth fruit” (Mark 4:20). {See Parables.}

The thought will naturally arise, What difference, if any, is there between the kingdom in its present existence, and the professing church?

The term ‘professing church’ never occurs in Scripture. It may be noted (1) that Christ spoke of the church as a future thing in Matthew 16:18, and it began to be formed at Pentecost. That which Christ builds, embraces every saved soul, and only such, ‘living stones,’ from that date until the Lord Himself comes to fetch the sleeping saints and those that may be alive at that moment (1 Thess. 4:16-17; see also Eph. 2:20-21). This company forms also the body of Christ, of which He is the Head.

(2) Besides the above we read of the church which is the house (1 Tim. 3:15); the builders of this are men, servants of Christ, (1 Cor. 3:9-17); and they may, perhaps, build in stones that are not living stones (1 Peter 2:5) — as for instance, Simon Magus (Acts 8:13) — and which will be refused by the Lord. Under another figure, such are compared to ‘wood, hay, and stubble’ which will not stand the fire, but will be burnt up (1 Cor. 3:13).

Now, though false professors will be found in the church, which is the house, and those who ‘do iniquity’ in the kingdom, yet the ‘church’ and the kingdom are not interchangeable terms. The ideas are not the same. The kingdom is the sphere of Christ’s rule; the church is the dwelling place of God the Holy Spirit. In the kingdom the wheat and the tares are to grow together till the harvest. In the church a wicked person is to be put out (1 Cor. 5:13).

We do not read of Satan acting in the church as he did when he sowed the tares among the wheat; it was in the world he did that, of which he is the god. He can and does act upon those who are in the church, and he has his emissaries there; but in the church he should be resisted. They who build in the wood, hay, and stubble are inside.

Neither will the church which is the house (which is often called Christendom) terminate at the same time as the kingdom. The church, which is the body of Christ, will, as we have seen, be fetched by Christ Himself. The Antichrist will then be developed, and Christendom will be judged and brought to an end before the millennium; whereas the kingdom, after being purged, will be in its full power as the kingdom of the Son of Man, and will continue beyond the thousand years, until Christ shall deliver up the kingdom unto the Father, when God will be all in all (1 Cor. 15:24,28). See {Church}.

Measures of Capacity

Dry Measure

Greek	Authorized	Approximate
Greek	Version	Quantity
		gallons. pints.
Χοῖνιξ	measure	0 2	Rev. 6:6
μόδιος	bushel	2 0	Matt. 5:15; Mark 4:21; Luke 11:33
σάτον	measure	2 1	Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21

Liquid Measure

Greek.	Authorized	Approximate
Greek.	Version	Quantity
		gallons. pints.
ξεστης	pot	0 0.96	Mark 7:4,8
βάτος	measure	7 4	Luke 16:6
μετρητής	firkin, 72 ξέστης	8 5	John 2:6
κόρος	measure	64 1	Luke 16:7

It is judged that μόδιος and ξέστης are referred to simply as vessels independent of their capacity: such as ‘washing of vessels,’ etc. Some take the κόρος to be equal to the Cor, and ten times the capacity of the Bath: its capacity would then be about the same.

Long Measure

Greek	Authorized	Approximate
Greek	Version	Measure
		feet inches
πῆχυς	cubit	1 ft 6 in to 9.8 in	John 21:8; Rev. 21:17
ὀργνιά	fathom - (4 cubits)	6 ft 1 in	Acts 27:28
στάδιον	furlong	606 ft 9 in	Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18;
			Rev. 14:20; 21:16
μίλιον	mile - (8 furlongs)	4,854 ft 0 in	Matt. 5:41
ὁδὁςσαββάτον	Sabbath day’s journey	6 furlongs	Acts 1:12

The length of the cubit varies: if the long measure is taken, the fathom will be 7 ft. 3.5 in.

Miracles

The miracles of the Lord and of His followers have been much debated. What is a miracle? Is a miracle possible? Can the laws of nature be violated? For what purpose were miracles wrought? Are all miracles of the same nature, whether wrought by the priests of Egypt, by the Lord when on earth, or by Antichrist by-and-by? These are a few of the questions that have been warmly discussed.

Those who believe in the inspiration of the Scriptures are happily never troubled with another and further question with which some are occupied, namely, Are the miracles duly authenticated?

It is scarcely possible for them to have been better authenticated than they are. As another has said, they bear these three infallible proofs: —

1. The miracles were such that they could be appreciated by the natural senses of mankind, seeing, hearing, etc.

2. They were accomplished in the open day before many witnesses.

3. Records of them were published in the lifetime of those who witnessed them.

1. As to the first point, the water that was turned into wine was tasted, and declared to be the best wine; those who had been dead, or blind, or lame, were seen walking about alive or healed; those that had been dumb were heard to speak; and those that had been sick or diseased, felt that they had been cured. There was no mysticism surrounding the cases to make it at all questionable as to whether the cures had been real. As to death, in one instance the corpse was on its way to be buried, and was met, as we say, incidentally; in another, the body had been long enough in the grave to be thought to be stinking. As to those possessed by demons, one who could not be bound by chains was seen sitting in his right mind. As to sickness, one had had an issue twelve years, and had spent all her money on physicians; another had waited at the pool for the troubling of the waters who had been afflicted thirty-eight years. Four of the cures were effected upon those who had been afflicted from birth: one had been deaf and dumb, one blind, and two lame. There cannot therefore be any question but that the death, the afflictions, and the sicknesses were all real. In proof of this the second point is valuable.

2. The miracles were done before many witnesses. And what adds greatly to this proof is, that many of these witnesses were the Lord’s enemies, who would have been only too glad to have been able to deny the reality of what was wrought. It is recorded that His enemies laboured to catch Him in the words He uttered, and we may be quite sure that they sifted well the evidence of the miracles wrought as to whether they were real, as we know they did in the case recorded of the man blind from his birth in John 9. At the raising of Lazarus they were compelled to admit that “this Man doeth many miracles” (John 11:47), and on another occasion they admitted that a notable miracle had been done, and added, “We cannot deny it” (Acts 4:16).

3. The gospels were written during the lifetime of those who had witnessed the miracles. Such a thing would never have been done if they had not been real, and the record had not been true; for there were multitudes living who could have proved the deception had there been any, and many of whom would have been only too glad to have been able to prove them false.

We thus see that respecting the miracles they were such that anyone could judge of their reality; that they were done before many witnesses; and that the record of them was made known while the witnesses were alive. They were therefore indisputably real and are truly recorded.

Let us proceed to some further questions. What is a miracle? May we not say that it is something which no mere man can, of his own power, accomplish? Something brought about without ordinary means, and which ordinary means never have accomplished? It may not have been always by the power of God that miracles have been accomplished, if we view the doings of the wise men and sorcerers of Egypt as miracles (Ex. 7, 8); they were by the power of Satan. And it is revealed that the Antichrist will, by-and-by, be able to work miracles also, but we know that they also will be accomplished by the agency of Satan. In all and every case it is not by merely human power that a miracle can be wrought: it must be by the agency of some superior power.

If it is admitted that some miracles have been wrought by Satan, and that others will yet be wrought by him, then the question naturally arises, What was intended to be taught by the miracles of the Lord? And in what respect do His miracles differ from those of Satan? Did not the sorcerers of Egypt do some of the same things that Moses did?

It is quite clear from Scripture that Satan can work no miracle except by permission of God. This is seen in the case of Job, though no actual miracle was wrought then; Satan could only touch the surroundings of Job, and afterward the person of Job, just as far as it pleased God to allow him.

In the case of Pharaoh, we are distinctly told that God hardened his heart — He did not make him wicked — and it was doubtless for this purpose that Satan was allowed to enable the sorcerers to imitate some of the miracles wrought by God in the person of Moses. But even in this God did not leave Himself without a witness. On the rods becoming serpents, Aaron’s rod swallowed up the rods of the magicians; and at the fourth plague their imitation was stopped, and they had to confess to Pharaoh, “This is the finger of God.”

It is also clear that when the Antichrist will be able to work miracles it will be by permission of God, though “after the working of Satan”; for God tells us that He will send to apostate Christendom strong delusion that they should believe a lie. They had had the truth presented, but they believed it not; therefore Satan and Antichrist will be allowed to deceive them. The Jews, who received not the Lord Jesus, though He had come to them in the name of His Father in whom they professed to believe, will also receive the same deceiver, who will come in his own name (John 5:43).

It must be noted that the Lord constantly appealed to His words as well as to His works. So in the case of Pharaoh, Moses did nothing in his own name; the demand that the people should be let go was in the name of the Lord God of Israel. Pharaoh also had his words, saying, “Who is the Lord, that I should obey His voice to let Israel go? |iI| know not the Lord, neither will I let Israel go” (Ex. 5:2). This was in harmony with the works of his magicians; so that no stranger could be at any loss to know which were the works of God, and which were not.

So will it be with the Antichrist: he will also have his words: he will deny both the Father and the Son (1 John 2:22), and that Jesus Christ came in the flesh (2 John 7). His works will correspond: he will exalt himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped; so that he as God will sit in the temple of God and shew himself that he is God. And by means of Satan’s power, he will deceive by signs and lying wonders.

So with the Lord, His works and His words agreed. He constantly spoke of God, yea, He spoke the words of God, what the Father had taught Him; and the words that He spoke were with power; they were spirit and life. So that the people had to confess, “Never man spake like this Man,” and Peter said, “Thou hast the words of eternal life.” With all this His works agreed. He went about doing good, and undoing the work of Satan. He “was manifested, that He might destroy the works of the devil” (1 John 3:8). Besides delivering souls from the power of Satan He delivered men’s bodies. The woman released by Christ had been bound by Satan eighteen years; and in many cases demons were cast out from the persons possessed.

It is the utmost folly to pretend that these were merely cases of lunacy. Matthew 4:24, gives a list of cases, and it will be seen that lunatics are put as distinct from those possessed by demons. Besides the demons recognized our Lord, and spoke to Him respecting the torments that they knew were in store for them; but One stronger than their master was there, and they were cast out. The Lord Jesus was that strong One, yea, He was God manifest in the flesh. His words and His works proved that He was God.

Let us next inquire what words are used in Scripture to represent miracles. No one word would, in itself, convey the meaning we have endeavoured to give to what is a miracle. We therefore find that God has been pleased to use in the main three words.

Wonders

1. WONDERS, τέραδ. The people wondered, were amazed at what they saw, and hence what was done was called ‘a wonder.’ It must at least imply that the work wrought was not an ordinary occurrence, though it does not necessarily imply a miracle. But the word never stands alone: it is constantly associated with the word ‘sign’; the church prayed that signs and wonders might be done by the name of the holy servant Jesus (Acts 4:30). In Acts 2:19 it is in connection with heaven, ‘wonders in heaven’; and in 2 Thess. 2:9 it is ‘lying wonders.’ The word is always translated ‘wonders.’

Signs

2. SIGNS, σηυεῖον. A sign must be a sign of something. When our Lord was on earth the Jews asked for a sign from Him — ”a sign from heaven,” they said. They constantly saw the signs that He did; but these did not satisfy them, but we read that they were tempting Him. The works that He did were signs that God was there. “Since the world began was it not heard that any man opened the eyes of one that was born blind” (John 9:32). There was One there with a power greater than that of the strong man (Satan); and whose power could that be but God’s? Whether exercised by the Lord Himself or by His disciples, the works accomplished were signs of the finger of God. It may be noted that this Greek word in Matthew, Mark, and Luke is always translated ‘sign’ except Luke 23:8, where it is ‘miracle.’ It is always translated ‘miracle’ in John, except chapters 2:18; 4:48; 6:30; 20:30, where it is ‘signs.’ In the Acts it is ‘signs,’ except chapters 4:16,22; 6:8; 8:6; 15:12. In 2 Thess. 3:17 it is ‘token.’ In Rev. 12:1,3; 13:13 it is ‘wonder.’ In chapters 13:14; 16:14; 19:20, it is ‘miracles.’ In all other places it is ‘signs.’ It would have been better had it been always so translated.

Powers

3. POWERS, δύναμις. This is sometimes translated ‘miracles,’ but at other times ‘mighty works,’ ‘powers,’ showing that such works cannot be accomplished by ordinary means or by mere man. It is translated ‘miracles’ in Mark 9:39; Acts 2:22; 8:13; 19:11; 1 Cor. 12:10,28-29; Gal. 3:5; Heb. 2:4. Our Lord claimed to do works which “none other man did” (John 15:24).

These three words are used by God to point out what are called ‘miracles.’ They were ‘wonders,’ and thus arrested the attention of the spectators as being something above the ordinary course of events. They were ‘signs’ that God had visited His people in the person of the Lord Jesus Christ. They were ‘powers’ or mighty works that proclaimed them to be supernatural.

In three places the three words are associated together. In Acts 2:22, where Peter declares that the miracles, wonders, and signs were what God did by Jesus of Nazareth; and this his hearers knew. In 2 Corinthians 12:12, where Paul reminds the Corinthians that the signs of an apostle had been found in him, in signs, and wonders, and mighty deeds. In 2 Thessalonians 2:9, where it is foretold that the man of sin will come after the working of Satan with all power, and signs, and lying wonders, deceiving those who, as we have seen, will not now believe the truth.

The miracles wrought by Christ are often referred to as His ‘works.’ (See Matt. 11:2; John 5:36; 7:21; 10:32,38; etc.) His works which He did in His Father’s name bore witness of Him (John 10:25) that He came from God. Therefore it will be more tolerable in the day of judgment for Sodom and Gomorrah than for those places where He did His works, and they repented not.

We see therefore that the working of miracles was a test to the people. It must have been so when we regard them as the works of God. We read that “many of the people believed on Him, and said, When Christ cometh, will He do more miracles than these which this man hath done?” (John 7:31). But when the Pharisees heard this saying, they, with the chief priests, sent officers to seize Him. For all such the same miracles will be to their condemnation. They acknowledged that miracles were being wrought by Christ and by His apostles; but they rejected both the word preached, and the works wrought. Indeed a special condemnation is connected with the miracles. They said our Lord cast out demons by Beelzebub the prince of demons, which amounted to blasphemy against the Holy Spirit — for it was by the Spirit that the Lord cast out the demons — and such blasphemy should not be forgiven in the present age or the age to come.

A favourite modern objection to miracles is that the laws of nature are irrevocable, and nothing contrary to those laws could possibly have taken place: there must have been some deception somewhere, though it cannot now be discovered; or there must have been some unknown law of nature brought into action in each case, and then the thing would be simply a natural event, and no miracle at all. Persons unacquainted with the new law would look upon such things as miracles, but this was all!

All this is based upon the fallacy that there are such things as ‘laws of nature,’ and all who talk thus have one end in view — to shut out God. Bring in God as Creator, and all is changed. There are what may be called laws in nature; such, for instance, as iron sinking in water. But who made those laws? God surely: and if He made those laws, cannot He alter them, or suspend them in any particular case? Surely He can, or He is no longer God. He did this in the case of the axe-head falling into the water: “the iron did swim” (2 Kings 6:6). Nothing is simpler for faith when God is given His true place; but Satan’s effort ever is to shut out God; and then men are left only to the wanderings of their own mind and the leadings of Satan.

The miracles of the Lord and of His apostles were almost all wrought for man’s relief — delivering him from the sufferings of the mind and body, as well as healing all who were immediately oppressed of the devil, and delivering those who were possessed by demons. Only a part — and perhaps a small part — of the miracles which were wrought are recorded. Thus we read that multitudes brought their sick and those vexed with unclean spirits, without the cases being given in detail, and everyone was healed (Mark 6:55- 56; Acts 5:16).

One miracle differs in character from these, namely, the cursing of the fig-tree (Matt. 21:19, etc.). There is in this a pointed allusion to Israel. Our Lord had spoken unto them a parable: a certain man had planted a fig-tree; and when he came for three years to gather fruit he found none, and ordered the tree to be cut down. But he was asked to spare it yet another year, to see if it would bear fruit, and if not, then it should be cut down (Luke 13:6-9). This is somewhat different from the Lord cursing the fig-tree, though both refer to Israel. He came hungry to the fig tree, but finding only leaves, cursed it. There stood that withered tree by the side of the road from Jerusalem to Bethany, a striking witness of the judgment which awaited that guilty nation if they persisted in the refusal of their Messiah, who, though He came seeking fruit, was ready to become the Sower, to sow the word of God, by which they might be saved. Alas! it was all in vain. The fig-tree perished: Jerusalem was destroyed, and the people slain or scattered. Compare the things that Jeremiah was bid to do as signs to Israel (chs. 13:1-11; 19:1-10).

A further question on the subject of miracles has been raised, namely, how far the value of the evidence by miracles in the time of our Lord is lessened by the assertion that miracles have always been and are still wrought in the church.

In the Gospel by Mark (16:17-18) we read, “These signs shall follow them that believe; in My name shall they cast out devils; they shall speak with new tongues; they shall take up serpents; and if they drink any deadly thing, it shall not hurt them; they shall lay hands on the sick, and they shall recover.” It will be observed that this was said at the close of our Lord’s sojourn on earth, and that it did not apply to His apostles, but to those who should believe when the apostles preached the gospel that was for every creature.

It is an interesting question as to whether we have any authenticated records of such miracles being wrought in the early ages of the church. We must not forget the tests by which to judge if the reputed miracles were real. They must have been done more or less in public; they must be such things as anyone can judge of; and they must be recorded while the witnesses are alive.

Justin Martyr said to the Romans, who were persecuting the Christians, that the name of Jesus was powerful for the destruction of the demons. He declared, “You can learn this from what is under your own observation. For numberless demoniacs throughout the whole world, and in your city many of our Christian men exorcising them in the name of Jesus Christ, who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, have healed and do heal, rendering helpless and driving the possessing devils out of the men.” (Second Apology, vi.)

Irenaeus says what was done in his day: “Some do certainly and truly drive out devils, so that those who have thus been cleansed from evil spirits frequently both believe and join themselves to the church. Others have foreknowledge of things to come: they see visions, and utter prophetic expressions. Others still heal the sick by laying their hands upon them, and they are made whole. Yea, moreover, as I have said, the dead even have been raised up and remained among us for many years. ... As she [the church] has received freely from God, freely also does she minister. Nor does she perform anything by means of angelic invocations, or by incantations, or by any other wicked curious art; but by directing her prayers to the Lord who made all things, in a pure, sincere, and straightforward spirit, and calling upon the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, she has been accustomed to work miracles for the advantage of mankind, and not to lead them into error.” (Against Heresies, ii. 32, 4, 5.)

Tertullian also appeals to known facts concerning the cure of some: as the clerk of one of the advocates, “who was liable to be thrown upon the ground by an evil spirit, was set free from his affliction; as was the relative of another, and the little boy of a third. And how many men of rank, to say nothing of common people, have been delivered from devils, and healed of diseases!” (To Scapula, 4.)

Again he appeals to the emperor thus: “Place some assuredly possessed person before your tribunals; a follower of Christ shall command that spirit to speak, who shall as surely confess himself to be a demon as elsewhere he will falsely call himself a god.” (Apology, 23.)

It will be seen that these things were said while the persons were living on whom the miracles were wrought, and while those were living who witnessed them: so that the events could be fully tested at the time.

Many of the professed miracles said to be wrought in the church in later times were attended with very different circumstances. Some were not named till all who could be called as witnesses were dead; others were said to have been done in private when there were no witnesses, and many were proved to be false by the trickery being discovered by which the effects were wrought, or by the persons confessing the deception.

There can be no reasonable doubt that God made good His promise in Mark 16:17-18 (see also Acts 8:7; 16:18; 19:12; 28:5,8), though there are no trustworthy evidences that there are miracles now in the church. Satan in the days of the apostles had his counterfeits, as he certainly has had since (Acts 8:9; 13:6-8; 19:19), and will yet be permitted to deceive with real delusions, as we have said (Matt. 24:24; 2 Thess. 2:9-10; Rev. 13:13-14).

It will be seen that some of the miracles are recorded in one gospel only; and that each of the four gospels has miracles that are not recorded in the other gospels. Without doubt there is a divine reason for this, and that the character of each gospel may give the key to the selection that has been made by each of the inspired evangelists. A few miracles are found in Matthew and Mark only; and a good many in Matthew, Mark, and Luke: only one is found in all the four gospels. John 21:25 expressly tells us that Jesus did many things which he, the evangelist, had not recorded. Who could possibly have guided John and the other writers of the books of the Bible in the selection but He whose book it is? This stamps the whole as THE WORD OF GOD.

List of the Principal Miracles

MIRACLES	Matt.	Mark	Luke	John
Two blind men cured….	9:27-31
Dumb spirit cast out….	9:32-33
Tribute money in mouth of fish....	17:24-27
Deaf and dumb man cured…		7:31-37
Blind man cured….		8:22-26
Draft of fishes….			5:1-11
Widow’s son raised….			7:11-17
Woman loosed from a spirit of infirmity….			13:11-17
The dropsy cured....			14:1-6
Ten lepers cleansed….			17:11-19
Malchus’ ear healed....			22:50-51
Water made wine….				2:1-11
Nobleman’s son cured....				4:46-54
Impotent man cured….				5:1-9
Man born blind cured….				9:1-7
Lazarus raised from the dead….				11:38-44
Draft of 153 fishes….				21:1-14
Syro-Phoenician’s daughter cured….	15:21-28	7:24-30
Four thousand fed….	15:32-38	8:1-9
Fig tree withered….	21:18-22	11:12-24
Centurion’s servant cured….	8:5-13		7:1-10
Blind and dumb demoniac cured….	12:22		11:14
Demoniac in the synagogue cured…		1:23-28	4:33-37
Peter’s wife’s mother cured….	8:14-15	1:30-31	4:38-39
Leper cured….	8:2-4	1:40-45	5:12-15
Paralytic cured….	9:2-7	2:3-12	5:18-26
Tempest stilled….	8:23-27	4:36-41	8:22-25
Demoniacs cured at Gadara….	8:28-34	5:1-20	8:26-39
Jairus’ daughter cured….	9:18-26	5:22-43	8:41-56
Woman’s issue of blood cured….	9:20-22	5:25-34	8:43-48
Man’s withered hand cured….	12:10-13	3:1-5	6:6-11
Demon cast out of boy….	17:14-18	9:14-27	9:37-42
Blind men cured….	20:30-34	10:46-52	18:35-43
Jesus walks on the sea….	14:22-33	6:47-51		6:16-21
Five thousand fed….	14:15-21	6:35-44	9:12-17	6:5-14

Moabite Stone

This ancient and interesting stone has been very carefully examined and the inscription deciphered by various Oriental scholars. It was brought to light by the Rev. F. A. Klein, at Dibon, in the country of Moab, in the month of August, 1868, who took a sketch of it. The stone is about 41 inches in length, and about 21 inches thick, and the same in breadth. The jealous Arabs, suspicious of the European consuls who sought possession of the stone for their respective governments, calcined it, and broke it in pieces; being, however, carefully collected, the most of the valuable inscription was preserved. Here is indeed an ancient and valuable monument recording some of the stirring scenes in which king Mesha of Moab figures in relation to Israel. The stone is as old as 896 B.C. and consists of 34 lines in the old Hebrew characters. The various names of places will be found in Jeremiah 48, and the names of the kings of Israel in the second Book of Kings.

Translation

1. “I, Mesha, son of Chemosh-gad, king of Moab, the Di

2. bonite — my father reigned over Moab thirty years and I reign

3. ed after my father. And I made the high-place for Chemosh in Korchoh, a high place of de

4. liverance, because he delivered me from all enemies, and let me see my desire upon all my haters. Then arose Om

5. ri, king of Israel, and he oppressed Moab many days, because Chemosh was angry with his

6. land. And his son (i.e. Ahab) succeeded him, and he, too, said, I will oppress Moab. In my days he said this

7. But I looked upon (the ruin of) him and his house, and Israel perished forever. And Omri had taken possession of the plain

8. of Medeba, and dwelt in it, and they oppressed Moab, he and his son, forty years, but looked

9. upon him (i.e. Moab), Chemosh, in my days. And I built Baal-Meon and constructed in it the moat, and I built

10. Kirjathaim. And the men of Gad were dwelling in the land of Ataroth from of old, and the king of Is

11. rael had built for himself the city; and I fought against the city, and took it, and slew all the inhabitants of

12. the city (as) a (pleasing) sight to Chemosh and to Moab, and carried off thence

The ... .of Jehovah, and drag

13. ged it (or them) before Chemosh at Kirjath. And I made dwell in it (i.e. Ataroth) the people of Shirun, and the people of

14. M‒ch‒rath (?) And Chemosh said to me, “Go, take Nebo from Israel.” And I

15. went by night and fought against it from the dawning of the morning until midday, and I

16. took it, and slew the whole of it, seven thousand (men; but I did not kill the women

17. and maidens), for to Ashtar Chemosh I had devoted them, and I took away thence the

18. vessels of Jehovah, and dragged them before Chemosh. And the king of Israel built

19. Yahaz, and abode in it while he was fighting against me; but Chemosh drove him out before my face,

20. and I took of Moab two hundred men with all chiefs, and I led them up to Yahaz and took it

21. in addition to Dibon. I built Korchoh, the wall of the woods and the wall of

22. the mound; and I built its gates, and I built its towers, and

23. I built the palace; and I made the reservoirs for rain-water (?) in the midst of

24. the city. And there was not a cistern in the midst of the city, in Korchoh; and I said to the whole people, “Make for

25. yourselves each a cistern in his house.” And I cut the moat for Korchoh with (the labour of) the captives

26. of Israel. I built Aroer; and I made the road over the Arnon.

27. I rebuilt Beth-Bamoth, for it had been pulled down. I built Bezer, for ... .

28. ... .men of Dibon, fifty (in number) for all Dibon was submission. And I

29. ... .in the cities (?) which I added to the land. And I built

30. (Beth-gamul), and Beth Diblathaim, and Beth-Baal-Meon, and I took up (?) thither the Moabites

31. to take possession of the land. And Horonaim dwelt there.

32. And Chemosh said to me, go down and make war against Horonaim and take it.

33. Chemosh in my days ... .

34. Year and I “ ... .

Money

Greek	Authorized Version	Approximate. Value
		£ s. d.	$
λεπτόν	mite	0 0 0 3/32	0.0005	Mark 12:42; Luke 12:59; 21:2
κοδρύντης	farthing	0 0 0 3/16	0.0007	Matt. 5:26; Mark 12:42
ὰσσάριον	farthing	0 0 0 3/4	0.0039	Matt. 10:29; Luke 12:6
δηνάριον	penny	0 0 7 3/4	0.03	Matt. 20:2; Rev. 6:6
δραχμή	piece of silver	0 0 7 3/4	0.03	Luke 15:8-9
δίδραχμον	tribute (money)	0 1 3 1/2	0.06	Matt. 17:24
στατήρ	piece of money	0 2 7	0.12	Matt. 17:27
μνᾶ	pound	3 4 7	4	Luke 19:13-25
τάλαντον	talent (Roman)	193 5 0	242	Matt. 18:24; 25:14-30
ὰργύριον	piece of silver	indefinite		Matt. 26:15; Acts 19:19
ὰργύριον	money	--		Matt. 25:18; Acts 7:16

The last-named is the common word for ‘silver’ and ‘money,’ as l’argent in French. ‘Piece of silver’ is always ὰργύριον, except in Luke 15:8-9, where it is δραχμή, as above.

The only weight mentioned is the pound, λίτρυ (John 12:3; 19:39). Its weight is 12 ounces avoirdupois.

The value of the words employed is at times meant to be instructive. For instance, in Matthew 18:24, a forcible point in the parable is the immensity of the debt forgiven by the lord, nearly two million pounds of our money (£1,937,500, $2,421,875), in comparison with the few pounds owing by the fellow-servant (£3. 4s. 7d., $4.00).

Then as to the parable of the talents (Matt. 25), we are apt to regard the one talent as a small gift, whereas we find that it represents nearly £200 ($250), and money was of much more value then, for a man’s daily wages were but 7¾d. ($.04).l

Matthew 20 gives the wages for a full day’s work (apparently from 6 o’clock to 6 o’clock), as 7¾d. Was this fair wages for a day’s work? Tacitus (Annal i. 17) says that a denarius was the pay of a Roman soldier in the time of Tiberius, a few years previous. Polybius (ii. 15-16) mentions that the charge for a day’s entertainment at the inns in Cisalpine Gaul was half an as, which equals one-twentieth of a denarius. This shows that a penny (denarius) a day was liberal pay, the country being fertile, and food cheap.

Revelation 6:6 names the same sum (7¾d.) as purchasing a measure (choenix) of wheat, equalling one quart; or three quarts of barley for the same sum. Now as 7¾d. was the wages for a day’s work, the above shows that great scarcity is alluded to.

By comparing Matthew 17:24 and 27 it will be seen by the tables given that the tribute to the temple was 1S. 3½ d. ($.08)and that the exact sum for the Lord and Peter was found in the fish’s mouth. It was a stater, worth 2S. 7d. ($.14)

Matthew 26:15. The price paid for the betrayal of our Lord Jesus is stated as ‘thirty pieces of silver.’ These are supposed to be shekels of the sanctuary, and were heavier than ordinary shekels. Josephus puts them as equal to four Attic drachmas (Ant. iii. 8, 2. The LXX has ἀργυροῦς in Zechariah 11:12-13.); Jerome as 3⅓ drachmas. This latter agrees with some existing specimens, and would be about 2S. 6d. in value. Thirty of these would be £3. 15s. 0d. ($ 4.65) the price of a man or maid-servant (Ex. 21:32). Alas! for the man that would betray his Lord — and such a Lord — for so paltry a sum!

Acts 19:19. The books burned were valued at fifty thousand (pieces) of silver. There is no means of telling definitely what the value really was; but it is generally supposed that the coin drachma is alluded to (as in Luke 15:8). The Vulgate has denarius, which is the same value as the drachma. The total would then be about £1,615 ($2020). When books were copied by hand their cost was great, and these magical books may have had an additional value set on them, being used to deceive the people for gain.

Months and Seasons

There is at first sight an apparent confusion in the computation of Jewish time, and in the arrangement of their months, but a little consideration of the subject will show that there is no real difficulty. The year was to commence from the beginning of harvest, but if at the end of the year, a late harvest was anticipated, then an extra month was added, called Vedar, so as to secure the year commencing with the month Abib, meaning ‘ears of corn.’ By this arrangement, the wave sheaf could always be waved before the Lord in the same month, and a fixed time for beginning the year adhered to.

It will be observed that, consequent on the deliverance from Egyptian bondage and judgment, the months were changed. The seventh month of the old or civil year (Tisri or Ethanim), was thenceforth regarded as the first month, thus recommencing their history on the ground of redemption (Ex. 12). The Hebrews more generally spoke of their months, as first month, second month, third month, etc.; very few of them are named before the captivity. The corresponding English months must not be regarded as absolutely correct; a close approximation is all that can be given.

Arrangement of the Jewish Months

CIVIL YEAR	SACRED YEAR	SIGNIFICATION	REFERENCE	CORRESPONDING MONTH.
7	1. Nisan or Abib	Green ears.	Ex. 13:4	Part of March and April
8	2. Zif	Blossom.	1 Kings 6:1,37	Part of April and May
9	3. Sivan	Bush or Thorn.	Esther 8:9	Part of May and June
10	4. Tammuz	Concealed.	(Not named.)	Part of June and July
11	5. Ab	Father. (?)	(Not named.)	Part of July and August
12	6. Elul	Glean or cut off.	Neh. 6:15	Part of August and September
1	7. Tisri or Ethanim	Month of Streaming Rivers.	1 Kings 8:2	Part of September and October
2	8. Bul	Rain.	1 Kings 6:38	Part of October and November
3	9. Chisleu	(Doubtful.)	Zech. 7:1	Part of November & December
4	10. Tebeth	Winter.	Esther 2:16	Part of December and January
5	11. Sebat	Shoot.	Zech. 1:7	Part of January and February
6	12. Adar	Large.	Ezra 6:15	Part of February and March

In several instances, the meanings of the months are strikingly appropriate, as: Elul, ‘Glean or cut off’ the late grapes; Tebeth, ‘Winter,’ the coldest season of the year; Bul, ‘Rain,’ the time when heavy rains fall; Nisan, ‘Green ears,’ commencement of harvest, etc.

Night and Day

	NIGHT	DAY
	First Watch, Evening, 6-9 p.m.	Third Hour 6-9 a.m.
	Second Watch, Midnight, 9-12 p.m.	Sixth Hour 9-12 noon.
	Third Watch, Cockcrow, 12-3 a.m.	Ninth Hour 12-3 p.m.
	Fourth Watch, Morning, 3-6 a.m.	Twelfth Hour 3-6 p.m.

In the Eastern world the evening and the morning constituted the day (Gen. 1). This borne in mind will afford a clue to the solution of many chronological difficulties.

Nations Identified in Genesis 10

The oldest document extant for the chronologist is Genesis 5, and for the historian, Genesis 10. In these chapters we have Divine sources to draw from, and a Divine basis to work upon. The instructions, therefore, upon those useful branches of study, chronology and history, is authoritative and invaluable. All conclusions drawn from other sources ever prove misleading, and are generally overturned by others better taught. The moment we leave the sure pages of inspiration we are off the ground of authority, and all is mere theory and guess work.

In this chapter, and only here, have we an account of the rise of nations, peoples, and tongues, and of the dispersion of mankind. The peopling of the earth by families, all speaking one language, having one common interest, and dwelling together in unity, was certainly part of the Divine plan in the wise and beneficent government of God: “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth” (Gen. 9:1). This gracious provision for the blessing of man and creation was not accepted, and men sought to centralize themselves on the earth in direct independence of God. But what God would have accomplished in goodness, had man been obedient, He has brought about in judgment, because of man’s self-will.

A name and a center were sought for in the “city” and “tower,” which men began to build on the plains of Shinar, but which, blessed be God for His intervention, was not finished, for “they left off to build the city.” This was the first general confederacy amongst mankind. How God viewed this daring and impious attempt, and how it was utterly defeated, we are informed in the early part of Genesis 11. “And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded. And the Lord said, Behold the people is one, and they have all one language: and this they begin to do: and now nothing will be restrained from them which they have imagined to do. Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another’s speech. So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth: and they left off to build the city.” Thus the very thing they sought to avert — scattering abroad — was what God accomplished in judgment. Surely, too, there is mercy mingled in all this, for while self-will is as rampant now as on the plains of Dura, the numerous tongues and nationalities effectually hinder an intelligent combination of mankind. Most blessed it is that the many tongues given as an expression of governmental judgment are afterward found publishing the wonderful works of God in grace at Pentecost (Acts 2), and will yet be used in proclaiming the glories of the Lamb (Rev. 7).

Part of the eleventh chapter of Genesis down to verse 19, precedes the historical account of the separation of mankind into nations, as detailed in Genesis 10. This seems to us clear, from the fact that the moral reason of the dispersion is given in Genesis 11; and further, that “Peleg,” in whose days the dispersion took place (Gen. 10:25), is named in chronological sequence in Genesis 11:19.

Adam is the one common head of the human family; the root and source of mankind. But the rise of nations as such, and origin of the many tongues — which ethnology resolves into three fountain heads — are in this highly important chapter traced up to the three sons of Noah. As individuals of the race, Adam was, of course, there as our progenitor; but viewed as heads and sources of families and nations, they stand in a peculiar and distinct relation to the world.

It must not be supposed that any of the peoples here named are extinct, that they have passed off the scene forever; for man, many of them are, but certainly not for God. It is a principle of great importance in the ways of God on earth, that every individual and every people who have here acted their part, and, as such, are accountable to God — the moral Governor of the universe — will re-appear in the closing days, to give an account of their stewardship. This is generally admitted in the case of individuals, but collective responsibility will as certainly have to be answered for, and this is not so readily allowed. All the peoples named in Genesis 10, will nationally or representatively re-appear in the coming crisis. All must come up for judgment, and the bearing of this truth upon the prophetic future, imparts immense solemnity and completeness to the dark period prior to the setting up of Christ’s millennial reign on the earth.

The three sons of Noah were Japheth, the eldest, Shem, the second, and Ham, the youngest. When the order of grace is given, Shem is first named (Gen. 9:26); when the order of birth or nature, Japheth comes first (Gen. 10:2). Apart from the plural ending ‘im’ of many of the names, as Mizraim, Ludim, it is clear that the persons here named do not appear as individuals merely, but as denoting races and nations.

Noah's Descendants

Descendants of Japheth

1. Gomer, the eldest son of Japheth, is the father of the ancient Cimmerians, who settled on the northern shore of the Black Sea. The modern and familiar name ‘Crimea,’ and the ‘Cimbri’ of olden times, are derived from the Cimmerians, the immediate descendants of Gomer. The Gauls and Celts of ancient times, and of more modern date the Germans, French, and English, or British rather, are descended from Gomer.

2. Magog evidently refers to the Scythians or Mongolian tribes who settled on the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea.

3. Madai is readily identified as the well-known Medes, who were allied to the Persians in after years (Isa. 13:17).

4. Javan is the ancient name of Greece (Dan. 8:21).

5. Tubal we identify as the modern Tobolsk, capital of Asiatic Russia. The peoples descended from Tubal were located between the Black Sea and the Caspian.

6. Meshech, from its association with Tubal and connection with Gog, or Russia, in Ezekiel 38, 39, we identify as Moscow, not only a large and populous province, but the city of that name, forming the metropolis of the whole Russian Empire.

7. Tiras is in all probability the progenitor of the Thracians.

8. Ashkenaz, whose descendants settled in the northern and southern side of the Black Sea.

9. Riphath, the father of the tribes who located themselves on the Rhipean or Carpathian mountains, pretty far north of Tiras or Thrace.

10. Togarmah, better known as Armenia, the people of which assert that they are descended from ‘Targom,’ or the Togarmah of Scripture.

11. Elishah, a portion of the Greek race inhabiting the isles of the Aegean Sea (Ezek. 27:7).

12. Tarshish is identified by many as Tuscany, in Italy; it may be so, but the proof is not as satisfactory as we would wish. There was an eastern city and a western one both of that name.

13. Kittim or Chittim is the ancient name for the now noted island of Cyprus, but we regard it as denoting the islands and sea coast of the Mediterranean under the yoke of Rome (Dan. 11:30).

14. Dodanim, believed by many to signify an ancient Greek race.

“By these were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands; everyone after his tongue, after their families, in their nations.” It will be observed from the foregoing brief geographical notes, that the seas round which the descendants of Japheth located, were the Mediterranean, Caspian, and Black Seas; this will help us to understand what is meant by the “isles of the Gentiles.” A similar expression occurs in Zephaniah 2:11, etc.

Descendants of Ham

1. Cush is wrongly translated “Ethiopia” in Isaiah 18:1, and elsewhere. The Cushites settled partly on the Nile and partly on the Euphrates. “Rivers of Ethiopia” or Cush, are therefore the rivers Nile and Euphrates.

2. Mizraim is a plural word, denoting both Upper and Lower Egypt.

3. Phut, an African people, known as the Libyans, and from whom the Moors are in turn descended.

4. Canaan is the general designation of the nations inhabiting the country from the Mediterranean on the west, to the Jordan on the east, and prior to Israel’s occupation.

5. Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, Sabtecha, Sheba, and Dedan, these seven names all refer to peoples settled at or near the Persian Gulf.

6. Babel, Erech, Accad, Calneh, these four cities originally formed the strength of the Babylonian kingdom.

7. Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah, Resen, these four cities originally constituted the strength of the Assyrian kingdom.

8. Ludim, Anamim, Lehabim, Naphtuhim, Pathrusim, Casluhim, these six, it will be observed, have the plural ending, and denominate various African tribes or nations.

9. Philistim are the well-known people who settled within the western borders of Canaan, namely, the Philistines.

10. Caphtorim are the original inhabitants of the Isle of Crete, now known as Candia in the Mediterranean, once a mighty kingdom of 100 cities, — so sang Homer.

Descendants of Shem

1. Elam is the ancient name for Persia.

2. Asshur is the country of Assyria.

3. Arphaxed is the northern portion of Assyria.

4. Lud refers to a people who settled in Asia Minor.

5. Aram, is the Bible designation of Syria (Num. 23:7).

Here several of the names, as Salah, Peleg, must be read simply as the heads of races or peoples.

6. Eber or Heber, from whence sprung the Hebrews.

Most of the other names refer to tribes inhabiting various parts of Arabia.

Principal Peoples

The principal peoples descended from Japheth, were the Medians, Greeks, Romans, Russians, Gauls, and Britons.

The principal peoples descended from Ham, were the Egyptians, Africans, Babylonians, Philistines, and Canaanites.

The principal peoples descended from Shem, were the Hebrews, Persians, Assyrians, and many of the Arabian Tribes.

Past and Future

Most of the nations sprung from Japheth are distinctly pointed out as reappearing in the closing days under Gog, the then Emperor of all the Russians (Ezek. 38, 39; for Greece, see Zech. 9:13). Egypt and Assyria are spoken of in the past and future, as king of the south and king of the north (Dan. 11). The ancient enemies of Israel are the Philistines, Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites, and others are also named, as gathering in concert against the beloved people of Jehovah, when restored to their land, for which, see that prophetic Psalm 83. Speaking generally, the descendants of Noah’s sons will be found in the closing days, either under the chieftainship of Gog (Russia) — expressing their hatred and hostility to the Jews; or under the Beast (the revived Roman power) — in open antagonism to the Lamb and His heavenly people.

The place which these nations occupy in the coming future, suppose the restoration of Israel — at least, Judah — to her land, and the old enmity to that people breaking out afresh; yea, more bitterly than before. The day of glory and blessing for Israel is nigh at hand; but first, the church will be translated to heaven, then will follow the restoration of the Jewish people (Isa. 18), to be succeeded by judgment upon the congregated nations, closed by the grand and glorious reign of Jesus over the millennial earth for 1000 years.

Numbers

The study of numbers was a favorite one with some of the learned in ancient times. It would be a curious, but certainly not a profitable, piece of work to lay before the reader the strange fancies, and wild and extravagant speculations in the use of certain numbers, as the expression of the superstition and philosophy of the heathen world. Some of these numbers as then used, were not wholly destitute of a measure of truth. The scattered rays of Divine light now and again emitted from these and other symbols of heathen faith and superstition, only corroborate the apostle’s account of the heathen world (Rom. 1). The study of Scripture numerals, however, will be found to yield no uncertain light, but will materially aid in the discovery of moral, dispensational, and prophetic glories. Need we say that here, as elsewhere, the regions of fancy and speculation must be shunned, and the student be content to be guided simply by the Spirit of God who leadeth into all truth. If this be done, the reader will find some interesting circumstances connected with Scripture numeration.

In the Lamentations of Jeremiah, we have a striking example of the use of the Hebrew alphabet. Chapters one, two, and four, consisting of 22 verses each, are arranged in strict alphabetical order, the 22 letters of the alphabet answering to the 22 verses in each chapter, and are found in the opening words of the verses. Our translation, of course, fails to convey this to the English reader. Then, in chapter three, we have once more the letters of the Hebrew alphabet enumerated in order, but with three verses to each letter. Chapter five, although consisting of 22 verses, is not alphabetically arranged. To the Hebrews, who had neither paragraph, chapter, nor other division in their ancient writings, this Divine arrangement must have been extremely useful, and shows the condescending care of our God in thus aiding the memories of His people. Again, in the longest of the Psalms — 119th — consisting of 22 sections of eight verses each, the Hebrew letters in alphabetical sequence head the sections.

The Jewish writers had an exalted idea of their sacred language — perhaps the primitive language of man — and used the letters of their alphabet in many striking combinations, thus they reduced the 39 books comprising the Old Testament to 22; this they accomplished by coupling certain books and counting them as one. But the reader would do well to turn from the vagaries of man, which, at the most, contain but an element of truth to the word itself. Search these imperishable records, they contain the truth; they are the living source, the Divine fountain, while all else are but muddied channels.

One

This numeral is the sign of Divine unity and absolute supremacy. We have a complete circle described in Ephesians 4:4-6, consisting of seven distinct unities as one body, one spirit, one hope, one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God. Three is the sign of Divine manifestation, and seven of spiritual completeness. Notice then, dear reader, that the first three unities are the inward manifestations of God, as believers only are comprehended; the second three unities are the outward manifestations of God, as profession is contemplated, while the unity and supremacy of the whole is maintained by God “above,” “through,” and “in all,” and lastly, as seven is the number denoting spiritual completeness, we have thus a complete, perfect, and unbroken circle described. However sceptical the reader may be upon the subject of Scripture numeration, he cannot, at least, question the evident design in the writing of this passage, which, if read in the light of the numbers we have indicated, will help immensely in grasping the wide and comprehensive scope of the Scripture as a whole.

We will turn to another interesting passage as showing the designed combination of certain numbers. In Ephesians 4, we had numerals one, three, and seven; but in the Gospel of John 17, we have one, two, and four. The Divine unity of the Father and the Son; unity of the apostles in their extraordinary mission; unity of the disciples in present testimony, and their future unity in glory are taught in these heart-breathings of the blessed Lord. As four contemplates man and creation, and two fullness of testimony, we can readily see the value of these numbers in this grand chapter; the whole regard man as such, the first two affording testimony to believers; the last two to the world. Surely, too, we are taught the unity of the governmental attributes of Jehovah in the golden cherubim, being of one measure and one size (1 Kings 6:25). Is not the unity of the race, spite of the objections of the learned, expressly declared by Paul in the great and intellectual city of Athens (Acts 17:26)? The professing church needs to be recalled to the meaning of this Divine number. Is she not gradually and surely slipping away from the unity of Christ’s one sacrifice of Himself (Heb. 9), and her unity of worship — one altar (2 Chron. 32:12)? These instances are only samples of what may be gleaned in the rich fields of Holy Scripture.

Two

The expression of ample and competent testimony is the meaning of this number. The two witnesses of the Apocalypse (Rev. 11:3), signify a full testimony borne to Christ in His royal and priestly rights in the coming days of the tribulation (verse 4). The two calves of gold set up by King Jeroboam (1 Kings 12:28), are the full expression of Israel’s idolatry, while the ministry of the two prophets — Elijah and Elisha — furnish a full testimony on Jehovah’s part to the idolatrous nation. The water and the blood which came from the pierced side of the Saviour, were a two-fold witness to the efficacy of His death — the one being for purification of sin, the other for expiation of sin (John 19:34; 1 John 5:6). The two pillars of brass (1 Kings 7:15) in the temple of old, bear their testimony to the enduring character of millennial glory. The testimony to Israel’s moral condition is set forth in the two blind men (Matt. 9:27); while the Messiah-ship of Jesus to the nation was competently witnessed to by the disciples sent out two by two (Mark 6:7); the twelve apostles are named and described in pairs (Matt. 10:2-4). Jehovah’s testimony of old to the full work of atonement, is expressed in the two birds, alive and clean (Lev. 14:4), and the two goats (Lev. 16). The two tables of the testimony (Deut. 4:13) demanded righteousness from man. The two Testaments reveal God to man. The gold and the shittim-wood set forth the two-fold nature of the Lord as divine and human. Jesus is the second person in the God-head, and bears a double testimony to man’s guilt and God’s grace. “The testimony of two men is true” (John 8:17), would surely, in connection with the Scriptures already referred to, along with Matthew 9:27; Genesis 6:19; Leviticus 5:7, etc. amply confirm the signification given to this number.

Three

This is a number of very frequent occurrence in the Scriptures, as the following list will show: — Three bear witness (1 John 5:8); three persons in the God-head (Matt. 28:19); threefold cry of the Seraphim (Isa. 6:3); three Christian graces (1 Cor. 13:13); three languages in the title over the cross (Luke 23:38); three calls to the earth (Jer. 22:29); three times a year (Deut. 16:16); three cities of refuge (Deut. 4:41); three times a day Daniel prayed (Dan. 6:13); three men appeared to Abraham (Gen. 18:2); three-fold priestly blessing (Num. 6:24-26); three times Peter denied Christ (Mark 14:72); three times Peter beheld the vision (Acts 10:16); three times Paul besought the Lord for the removal of the thorn (2 Cor.12:8); three measures of meal (Matt. 13:33); Jonas three days and three nights; Son of Man three days and three nights (Matt. 12:40). Revelation 4 and 5 will furnish a large number of similar instances.

This numeral, signifying Divine testimony and Divine completeness, may generally be regarded as the sign number of what is Divine; but certain Scriptures, as the third day in creation, the third in Christ’s resurrection, and the third of Israel’s revival, would also lead us to regard this number as the sign of resurrection in things moral, physical, and spiritual. (See the following texts: — Luke 13:32; Matt. 12:40; Hos. 6:2; 1 Cor. 15:4; Gen. 1: 11-12, etc.)

Four

This number is evidently the sign of universality. It is generally employed when man, the world, or the whole scene of creation is contemplated; where largeness, breadth, and scope are in view, then this number is the one generally used. The following selection will satisfy even the incredulous on this point: — Four universal monarchies (Dan. 2 and 7); four views of the heavenly Jerusalem (Rev. 21); four views of the earthly Jerusalem (Ezek. 48); four rivers fertilizing the earth (Gen. 2); four winds of heaven, four corners of the earth, four trumpets, and four living creatures (Revelation); four sore judgments, four faces, four sides, and four wings (Ezekiel); four horns and four workmen (Zech. 1:18-21); four chariots (Zech. 6:1); and we have the four gospels to complete our abridged list.

Five

This numeral is not of such frequent occurrence, and is thus not so easily read as those already considered, yet it has its own significance. We regard it as the expression of weakness. Would not David’s five smooth stones with which he smote the giant, the five loaves so wondrously multiplied by Christ, five chasing an hundred (Lev. 26:8), flight at the rebuke of five (Isa. 30:17), significantly express weakness as the import of this number? Israel went up out of Egypt by five in a rank (Ex. 13:18, see margin; Josh. 1:14, see margin). Was that not weakness in contrast to the might of Egypt? But in such passages as Numbers 5:7; Daniel 2:32-33; Matthew 25:2, etc. human responsibility is evidently the teaching. This number and its multiples are largely used in the measurements and arrangements of those parts of the tabernacle and temple which express human responsibility and testimony towards man. Five is a number specially connected with man, as the five books of Moses; the five books comprehended under the general title, “the Psalms” (Luke 24:44) as Job, Book of Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon — and which lay bare the heart of man; the fifth book of Moses, which regards the people as a whole; the five parts of the Gentile image (Dan. 2); five words with my understanding (1 Cor. 14:19). In this connection five is an interesting number.

Six

The root idea in this number is non-completeness — what is short of perfection. The six water pots of stone (John 2:6), according to Jewish ordinance, witnessed the imperfection of man and ordinances to bring in blessing; the continually recurring six days’ labour shows the non-completeness of man’s work — his work can never reach a full and final result; the six things which the Lord hates do not convey the thought of the completion of evil, “Yea, seven (completeness) are an abomination unto Him” (Prov. 6:16); there is deliverance says Job in six troubles, but “in seven there shall no evil touch thee” (Job 5:19) — there you have the final result. Solomon’s glory comes short of perfection, hence the six steps to his ivory throne (1 Kings 10:19) and his yearly revenue of gold — 666 talents (1 Kings 10:14). The number of the beast or world-power energized by Satan is 666 (Rev. 13:18), and the number of Pharaoh’s chosen chariots were 600 (Ex. 14:7), again expressing satanic power. Thus this number, and as variously multiplied, whether viewed in relation to man or Satan, ever present an incomplete result.

Seven

Seven is more frequently employed in Scripture than any other symbolic numeral; the following list is capable of considerable extension. In Revelation alone, it occurs upwards of 50 times, as seven churches, seven candlesticks, seven stars, seven lamps, seven angels, seven spirits, seven seals, seven trumpets, seven vials, seven plagues, seven crowns, seven horns, seven eyes, seven thunders. Then we have seven nations destroyed (Acts 13:19), and seven deacons chosen (Acts 6:3); seven demons cast out (Mark 16:9); seven sons of Saul (2 Sam. 21:9), and seven sons of Jesse (1 Sam. 16:10); seven times Naaman dipped in Jordan (2 Kings 5:14); seven altars and seven bullocks (Num. 23:29); seven priests and seven horns (Josh. 6:4); the blood was sprinkled seven times before the mercy seat (Lev. 16); and the leper sprinkled seven times (Lev. 14). There were seven feasts of Jehovah; certain of the feasts lasted seven days. The Sabbath was the seventh day. Enoch was the seventh from Adam; Moses the seventh from Abraham. Seventy times seven is the measure of forgiveness (Matt. 18:22). This numeral is a characteristic one in all Divine matters, and, as it is composed of numbers three and four, the former the sign of divinity and the latter of creation, its abundant use in the Bible must impress the careful reader with its significance. Many of the sevens are clearly divided into four and three. This the reader will find helpful to carefully note, and which he may verify for himself in the seven kingdom parables of Matthew 13, in the seven feasts of Jehovah (Lev. 23), and in the seven churches, seven seals, seven trumpets, and seven vials of the Apocalypse. We would understand this number as expressing spiritual perfection and completion, either of good or evil.

Eight

We have ‘Resurrection’ expressed in numbers three and eight; in the former, it is resurrection for man, on his behalf; in the latter, it is the believer’s new place and new beginning in Christ risen. Seven completing the circle of God’s ways on earth, eight would point to the eternal rest of God. This number, therefore, we regard as the sign of Resurrection, of Eternity, of a new Epoch. We submit the following texts in confirmation: — John 20:26; Luke 9:28; 1 Peter 3:20; Genesis 21:4; Leviticus 14:23; 2 Peter 2:5; John 7:37, etc.

Nine

This may be a symbolic number, but of this we cannot speak with certainty. As original numbers multiplied express greater intensity of thought, it has been suggested that, as nine is a multiplication of three by three, the value of this latter number, but proportionately increased, must be sought for in the occurrences of ‘nine’ in Holy Scriptures. It is several times used in the religious ordinances of old, (Num. 29:26; Lev. 25:22). It is marked as the hour of prayer more than once in the New Testament, Acts 3:1; 10:3,30; Luke 17:17. It is an hour marked off from every hour before or since that moment, when Christ gave utterance to His great agony, “My God, my God, why hast Thou forsaken Me?” (Mark 15:34). The darkness and the cry of desertion were both at the “ninth hour.”

Ten

This number measures responsibility towards God, as five does towards man. In the ten curtains, ten pillars, and ten sockets of the tabernacle, we have expressed responsibility to God; the same in the ten commandments, in which the prohibitory word “not” occurs ten times. We have also “God said,” ten times repeated in Genesis 1. The people’s failure in wilderness responsibility is expressed in the ten times they tempted Jehovah (Num. 14:22-23). Pharaoh’s responsibility to God is noted in the ten times he hardened his heart, and is measured in judgment by the ten plagues. This number is also found in the same signification in Revelation 17; Leviticus 27:32; 1 Kings 7; Zechariah 5:2; Luke 15:8. This numeral is of very frequent occurrence, and is often used in various multiplied forms in the ordinances of Israel, and in the tabernacle and temple measurements.

Eleven

We cannot say much upon this number, but it seems to us as if it presented incompleteness of earthly administration. Divine authority administered on or towards the earth, is expressed in the number “twelve,” and, as eleven is short of that, we gather that the signification given is correct; thus, Jehoiakim reigned eleven years (2 Kings 23:36); and Zedekiah, last king of Judah, eleven years (2 Kings 24:18); thus the administration of royal authority comes short in these reigns. Again we have the eleven disciples (Matt. 28:16) and eleven apostles (Acts 1:26); eleven stars (Gen. 37:9); eleven sons (Gen. 32:22); eleven curtains (Ex. 26:7-8); eleven cities (Josh. 15:51); and eleventh hour (Matt. 20:6-9). It will be observed that in all these instances incompleteness of administration is signified.

Twelve

This number signifies the administration of Divine government on or over the earth; also regarded as the sign of Israel’s unity, as in the twelve cakes of shewbread (Lev. 24:5); “one bread” or loaf is the expression of church unity (1 Cor. 10:17). The government of the glorified saints over creation is viewed in Revelation 21; there are twelve gates, twelve angels, twelve foundations, twelve pearls, twelve apostles, twelve tribes, twelve manner of fruits. The special government of Israel is committed to the twelve apostles, who will sit on twelve thrones (Matt.19:28). Israel’s place of supremacy and administrative authority amongst the nations, is set forth in her twelve gates (Ezek. 48:31-34). Then we have twelve patriarchs (Acts 7:8); twelve precious stones in the breast-plate (Ex. 28:21); twelve legions of angels (Matt. 26:53); twelve stones taken out of the Jordan, and twelve stones put into the Jordan (Josh. 4:8,9); twelve wells of water (Ex. 15:27); twelve oxen (1 Kings 7:25). Christ at twelve years of age is found amongst the doctors at Jerusalem.

Thirteen.

So far as we know, this is not a symbolic number, and its occurrence is but rare in Scripture. It is an interesting circumstance, however, that the present descendants of Ishmael circumcise their male youths when they reach the age of thirteen. Ishmael, it will be remembered, was circumcised when he was thirteen years old, the rite moreover, was confined to the line of Isaac, and to be administered when eight days old (Gen. 17:25).

Forty

This number is a very frequent one in the Scriptures. It expresses a period of full trial and probation. A few clear instances of the use of this number will show its signification. Jesus was driven by the Spirit into the wilderness, where, “with the wild beasts,” He was tempted forty days. Matthew informs us that Jesus fasted forty days and forty nights, thus, as the dependent man trusting in Jehovah, He was fully tried, and in every way tested, and, not only for forty days, but besides, for forty nights. During that long probationary period, He waited in patience for the coming-in of Jehovah — He lived upon His every word; the trial only brought out His deep perfection as man, and His obedience as servant and minister of His Father’s grace. Israel’s forty years’ wanderings in the wilderness was the full testing and proving of the people; and what was the result? Murmurs and complaints. Moses lived forty years in the court of Pharaoh — a full term, for manhood was then reached (Heb. 11:24) — he there acquired those essential qualifications which shone so pre-eminently in the law-giver, but which he could renounce for the reproach of Christ; again, he spent forty years in Horeb, another full period of trial and moral preparation for the work assigned him in conducting the Lord’s redeemed through the wilderness, this service also lasting forty years. The reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon each extended during the full period of forty years. God would visit the haughty spirit of Egypt with a forty years period of judgment and desolation (Ezek. 29:13-14). Nineveh was threatened with judgment after the probationary period of forty days had run its course; wisely they employed the time in repenting and seeking the Lord, and so averted the judgment. Isaac’s age — forty years — when he married, and Esau’s age, also forty when married, are circumstances to be regarded in the light of this symbolic number. The spies were out viewing the land forty days; Moses was forty days and forty nights in the mount with God; Elijah fasted forty days and forty nights; punishment by stripes was restricted to forty (Deut. 25:3); an Israelitish mother’s purification after the birth of a man-child was forty days (Lev. 12:2-4); and Ezekiel (ch. 4:6) was to bear the iniquity of Judah forty days — a day for a year. Full trial and testing, with the object of bringing out what is of man, and to strengthen what God has wrought in the soul is very clearly the teaching of these and numerous other texts containing the same number.

We have other numbers — as seventy, one hundred and twenty, and one hundred and forty four — which convey their own lessons to those who are willing patiently to learn; but we need not pursue the subject further, as these multiplied numbers will yield their meaning and precious lessons too by adding together the value of the respective figures necessary to form the larger numeral. Thus in forty we have the combination of four and ten, besides the ten, four times repeated, thus expressing greater intensity in the thought attached to that numeral; again in seven, we have four and three; in one hundred and forty-four, 12 by 12.

“Thousands of thousands” signify countless myriads.

Satan counterfeits those numbers to which what is Divine is attached, as three, seven, ten. For this, consult the Apocalypse where Satan’s last actings in the closing days are described.

The following extract is from an excellent article on this subject in Helps for Wayfarers — a Canadian publication of real merit: —

“The books of the Old Testament are 36 in number (counting Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles as one book each, as is really the fact). The simplest division of 36 is into 3 by 12. Put this into meaning according to the symbolism of these figures, and what do we find? Three is the Divine and 12 The governmental number; taken together they give you ‘God in government.’ What more precise definition could we have for the books of the Law?

“But the books of the New Testament are 27 in number. And this is the cube of three: it is 3 times 3 times 3; the most absolutely perfect number that can be, the only one into which none but the symbol of Divine fullness enters or can enter. Thus it is God and only God — God in His own absolute perfection — revealed in the New Testament pages — in the gospel of His grace.

“According to the common reckoning in our Bibles, Christ was born into the world in about the 4000th year of it. Now examine this date according to already-established principles. For forty centuries, then (less or more), the world’s probation lasted, and this forty as we have already seen to be the mark and measure of full probation.

“But whence the other factor? Whence the century? Let us only consider that Isaac was a type of the true ‘Child of Promise,’ and then we shall easily remember that his birth took place when Abraham’s body was now dead, when he was about a hundred years old. ... How significant and easily applicable to One greater far! born in the fortieth century of the world’s probation, when all flesh was seen as dead, and in the power of God new life began for man in Christ.”

“And I beheld, and I heard the voice of many angels round about the throne and the beasts and the elders: and the number of them was ten thousand times ten thousand, and thousands of thousands; saying with a loud voice, Worthy is the Lamb that was slain to receive power, and riches, and wisdom, and strength, and honour, and glory, and blessing” (Rev. 5:11-12).

Offerings - Synoptical View

THE BURNT OFFERING	THE MEAT OFFERING	THE PEACE OFFERING
SIGNIFICATION	SIGNIFICATION	SIGNIFICATION
Jesus in death presenting Himself to accomplish the will and glory of God. It is the God-ward aspect of the cross of Christ (Heb. 9:14).	Jesus as man presenting to God an unblemished life, with all its grace and moral perfectness; of Him who was “holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners.”	A slain Christ the ground and material of communion, whether for God, the Church, or any individual member of the priestly family.
NOTES	NOTES	NOTES
The offering could be of the herd, flock, or birds. Thus the animals specified are bullocks, goats, sheep, rams, lambs, turtle doves, young pigeons.	The offering consisted of “fine flour” or “green ears of corn.” Its adjuncts were frankincense, oil, salt.	This offering could be of the herd (male or female), of the flock (male or female). Bullocks, lambs, and goat are specified animals.
Here the offerer is prominent; he offers the animal, lays his hand upon its head, kills it, flays it, cuts it into pieces, and washes the inwards and legs in water.	The oil “mingled” with the flour sets forth the truth of the Divine conception of the human nature of our Lord (Matt. 1:20); while the flour “anointed” with the oil would as fittingly signify the weighty truth expressed in Acts 10:38.	The fat and inwards burnt on the altar as a sweet savour.
When it was an offering of birds the priest killed it; but that was an exception, not being directly priestly work.	God’s part was a handful of the flour with the oil, and “all the frankincense.”	The breast (love) and other parts eaten by the priestly family.
The priests sprinkled the blood and arranged the various parts on the altar.	This offering, as setting forth the holy humanity of our Lord, is not only a sweet savour offering, but is termed “most holy.”	The shoulder (strength) heaved before the Lord, and eaten by the officiating priest.
The trumpets were to be blown over these offerings on special occasions, as a memorial before God (Num. 10:10).	Salt was not to be omitted.	The remainder of the animal (if any) was burnt on the third day, as communion with God could only be maintained in connection with the sacrifice.
This was the highest in character and the first in order of all the sacrifices.	Honey was not to form an ingredient.	The trumpets were to be blown over these sacrifice on all solemn occasions and seasons of gladness (Num. 10:10).
On the entrance of Israel into the land, no burnt offering was complete without an accompanying meat offering; God would have the death and life of His Son thus prefigured before Him.	This offering was based upon and its value declared by that which God found in the burnt offering.	Laid on the altar of burnt offering, as was also the meat offering, both of which derived their worth from the moral value expressed in the burnt offering — what God found in the blessed and voluntary surrender of Jesus to accomplish the will of God.
	The meat offering for a priest was wholly consumed, none of it being eaten.
REFERENCES.	REFERENCES.	REFERENCES. Lev. 3; 7:11-21; Num. 18:17-18.
Lev. 1; 6:9-13; Num. 15:3-12; 2 Chron. 7:1-7.	Lev. 2; 6:14-23. Num. 15:4-9; Ex. 29:40-42.	REFERENCES. Lev. 3; 7:11-21; Num. 18:17-18.
The special ordinances of the Red Heifer for Wilderness Defilement (Num. 19) and the Passover commemorative of Redemption (Ex. 12) with the annual Atonement (Lev. 16) are exceptions to these sacrifices.

THE SIN OFFERING	THE TRESPASS OFFERING	THE DRINK OFFERING
SIGNIFICATION	SIGNIFICATION	SIGNIFICATION
Jesus on the cross made sin for us. The judgment of God borne and sin condemned in the holy sacrifice of Christ.	Sins and transgressions against God or man divinely met by Christ’s sacrifice, and restitution insisted upon.	The joy of God and man in the voluntary death-and-life-obedience of Jesus.
NOTES	NOTES	NOTES
This offering could be of the herd (male or female), of the flock (male or female), of birds, and in one case of a tenth part of an ephah of fine flour.	This offering was of rams and lambs.	This offering consisted of “strong wine” poured unto the Lord in the Holy Place (Num. 28:7).
The goat was pre-eminently the sin-offering.	In these offerings the main thought is not what I am, but what I have done.	A drink offering was to accompany the daily morning and evening burnt sacrifice.
The sin, trespass, and meat offerings were termed “most holy.”	Having injured another, it can only be met by sacrifice, and the injury repaired by full and righteous restitution.	This offering could only be offered in connection with that which set forth the death and life of Jesus, namely, the burnt and meat offerings.
Here the offerings varied according to the position of the offender; sin being measured by the character of God, and the responsibility of the person by the position he was divinely set in. Thus the value of the animal and the application of its blood are important points in these sin offerings.	Most of the particulars bearing upon the sin offering equally apply to these sacrifices.	The fourth part of WINE and the fourth part of OIL teach that our joy (wine) is proportionate to the power of the Holy Spirit (oil).
Sins of ignorance were not passed over, but could only be met by sacrifice.	There was no laying on of hands on the victim’s head (identification), as in the case of the sin offerings.	The wine and the oil always correspond in quantity.
The very poorest were thought of by God; they could bring a pair of birds, or even the tenth part of an ephah of flour.	Sacrifice, restitution, with an additional part added as compensation, accompanied with confession, are characteristics of these offerings.	Drink offerings will yet again be poured out before the Lord in expression of millennial gladness.
The fat (excellency) of this offering could ALONE be burned on the altar and go up to God as a sweet savour.	The guilt of the person is more in view in the sin offering; here it is the injury done, whether to God or man.	The touching expression of Paul in Philippians 2:17 refers to this blessed character of offering: “Yea, and if I be poured out as a libation on the sacrifice and ministration of your faith.”
REFERENCES	REFERENCES	REFERENCES
Lev. 4; 5:1-13; 6:24-30; 10:16-20.	Lev. 5:14-19; 6:1-7; 7:1-7; Num. 18:9-10.	Ex. 29:40-42; Num. 15:1-13; 28:7.
Salt (incorruption) was indispensable in all meat offerings, and in all the sacrifices it was to be offered. In no case was honey (mere natural affection) nor leaven (sin) to be burned on the altar. “Azazel,” meaning goat of departure, occurs four times, and only in Leviticus 16.

Offerings

Burnt Offering

Leviticus 1

The sacrifices, as a whole, pointed to the person, life, and work of the Lord Jesus; but when examined in detail, they will be found to yield precious instruction and abundant material for the meditation and worship of the believer.

The burnt offering is the first in Divine order and the highest in character of all the sacrifices. But our apprehension of these sacrifices and their adaptation to our need is uniformly opposite to the order of their institution (2 Chron. 29, etc.). As sinners, we first know Christ as the trespass offering “delivered for our offences”; and as led on by the Spirit in the fuller revelation of Christ and His precious work and person, we travel upward till we stand as worshippers around the altar of burnt offering, and wonder and adore as the ascending flame laden with the divinely-prepared perfume goes up to Jehovah for the satisfaction and rest of His heart. Most blessed it is, however, that God in the order in which these offerings are presented would teach our souls that the self-same sacrifice in which He finds present and eternal delight, is the answer to our need as sinners and our communion as saints. Atonement could be effected by the burnt offering and the various classes of sin offerings, but not by either meat or peace offerings.

This sacrifice points to the voluntary surrender, to the freewill offering of Jesus to accomplish in death the Divine will, as written of Him in the volume of God’s eternal counsels: “Lo, I come to do Thy will, O God” (Heb. 10:7). It is that aspect of the sacrifice of Jesus which directly and exclusively regards God “who through the eternal Spirit offered Himself without spot to God.” In the sin offering there was atonement (Heb. 4; 5) as in the burnt offering; but with this profound difference, that in the former it was to secure forgiveness — hence the frequent recurrence of the phrase, “it shall be forgiven him” — while in the burnt offering it was atonement for the acceptance of the person. Is it not therefore of priceless value to us that Christ, in the absolute devotedness of a will wholly set upon His Father’s glory, gave Himself up to God on the altar, and there in the scene where man had so terribly dishonoured God and trailed His glory in the dust — yea, in the place of sin-bearing itself, the fire of Divine judgment was kindled and all went up to God as a sweet savour, and in that we are accepted.

The unblemished animal was killed, flayed, and cut in pieces. The parts enumerated are the “head,” the “fat,” the “inwards,” and the “legs” — denoting the intelligence, will, motives, and walk of the blessed One in thus offering Himself — a whole Christ and an intelligent surrender to the glory of God. All were laid upon the altar and subjected to the fire — the searching judgment of God. “The priest shall burn all upon the altar to be a burnt sacrifice, an offering made by fire of a sweet savour unto the Lord.” What the offering was ceremonially, being washed in water, that Jesus was intrinsically. The fire of Divine judgment searched Him inwardly and outwardly; the motives and springs, as well as the walk and ways — and in result all went up to God as a sweet savour.

We, through Divine grace and in the power of the Holy Spirit, identify ourselves with Jesus thus so thoroughly glorifying God — entering into its blessedness, knowing our acceptance in His most precious acceptance, and as thus set down in the holiest of all, in all the value of Christ’s person and work. All this is significantly expressed in the identification of the offerer and the victim: “And he shall put his hand upon the head of the burnt offering (this significant act only stated in the case of the ‘herd,’ Lev. 1:4), and it shall be accepted for him to make atonement for him.” God’s eternal delight in Jesus as the burnt offering is beautifully told out in the words: “The fire shall ever be burning upon the altar; it shall never go out” (Lev. 6:13).

The reader’s careful attention is called to the distinction between the sweet savour offerings in which the saint is identified in all the Divine acceptance of the sacrifice, and the sin offerings in which the sinner is identified in the judgment of the victim.

Meat Offering

Leviticus 2

This is another of the “sweet savour offerings” in which God’s portion and delight in Jesus is fully brought out. True in one sense all that Jesus did, all that He was in life and death was “for us”; but His work to God for the expiation of sin is surely a different thing from His work to God for the acceptance of the offerer. In the former, God’s hatred to sin and outpouring of wrath upon the sinner’s Substitute is expressed; in the latter, God’s delight in holiness and in the infinite perfection of Christ in His person and work. “Christ made sin for us,” characterize the various sin and trespass offerings. Christ giving Himself for us “an offering and a sacrifice to God for a sweet smelling savour,” describe the distinguishing feature of the other sacrificial offerings.

If the burnt offering sets Jesus before us coming up to the altar — the cross — of His own free will, and there, in the place of sin, and where only it could be expiated, offering Himself to accomplish the will and glory of God in death; the meat offering presents Him offering a whole unblemished life to God, and that too, in the place of sin and sorrow. The material of which it was composed was “fine flour” — humanity in perfection; its adjuncts were “oil” — the Holy Spirit; “frankincense” — the moral graces; and “salt” — incorruption and perpetuity. What was forbidden was “leaven” (save in one marked exception), figure of evil; and “honey,” type of mere human affection. The “oil poured” upon the offering is the expression of Christ’s anointing by the Spirit and power, as in Acts 10:38; while the offering mingled with oil sets forth the profound teaching of Matt. 1:20 — ”conceived of the Holy Ghost.” This “most holy of the offerings of the Lord made by fire,” was brought to the priests; a handful taken out with all the frankincense and burnt upon the altar. Thus Jesus in all His blessed life, His words, His ways, His actions, and in all the moral graces and beauties and lovely traits of that wondrous path, trod to the glory of God, was subjected to the trial of fire. And what was the result? A sweet savour of rest to God. That part of the offering not put upon the altar, became the food of the priests. Thus we enjoy communion with God in His expressed delight of His Beloved One as a man on earth. Wondrous privilege!

Neither leaven nor honey were to be burned on the altar (Lev. 2:11). The meat offering of first fruits being baked with “leaven” (Lev. 2:12; see Lev. 23:17), was an exception, but this, as setting forth the church at Pentecost, sanctified and presented to God by the Holy Spirit, could not be “burnt on the altar,” for the simple but weighty reason that there was “leaven” or sin there; hence, when the “meat offering,” typical of the church was offered, the loaves made of fine flour were baken with leaven, but there was also offered with them a sin offering, to meet the actual state of the church, which, of course, on this side of glory is necessarily one of imperfection (Lev. 23:15-21); for the meat offering representing Christ personally — in which there was the most careful exclusion of “leaven” (see Lev. 2:1-10). The vital connection between the God-glorifying life and death of priceless worth, of Jesus, was carefully maintained by an abiding statute when the people were settled in the land, every burnt offering (death of Jesus), was to be accompanied with a meat offering (life of Jesus) (Num. 15:8-11).

We would again call attention to the interesting and important distinction in these offerings. The four classes of sacrifice were the burnt, meat, peace, and sin offerings, the three former specially expressive of God’s delight therein, while the latter expressed His judgment upon sin.

Peace Offering

Leviticus 3

The essential character of the peace offering being communion, a female animal could be offered. In the Church’s communion there is necessarily a measure of imperfection and weakness. This seems to be set forth in the “female.” But “without blemish” is an indispensable requisite here as in all the sacrifices. God cannot deny Himself. Holiness is an absolute necessity of His nature.

We can readily understand and appreciate surely, in our measure, the appropriate place of this sacrifice as coming after the two already named, the burnt and meat offerings. Our communion in the person and work of Jesus is not only based upon His sacrifice, but partakes of the character of what has already been presented to God, and what He has accepted. Jehovah has already fed upon that which represented Christ in death and life, and according to His delight therein our souls are maintained in communion. We are thus privileged to feast and joy in common with God, with Christ, and with each other. What an exalted privilege! The portions which Jehovah claimed, here called “food of the offering,” were all the “fat” and the “inward parts,” that is, the excellency and energy of will, and the feelings, motives, and affections of the Blessed One, which none but God could fully appreciate. All was proved by fire; everything in Jesus was divinely tested, and the trial only brought out His deep perfections. Hence all went up to Jehovah as a sweet savour; yea, more, God fed upon it, found delight and rest in every movement of the heart and will of His Beloved One. In connection with this sacrifice God claimed as a perpetual statute, the “fat” and the “blood,” the will and life.

As nothing, in all connected with the Jewish sacrificial ritual, was left to the imagination of man, but all carefully, minutely, and divinely prescribed, so they, as we, have only to obey, hence the importance of attending to the law regulating the observance of these sacrifices (Lev. 6, 7). In this latter chapter we are told what was done with the rest of the animal. The “breast,” the devoted love of Jesus, was fed upon by Aaron and his sons, that is, Christ and His people. The “right shoulder,” the mighty strength of Jesus, was the special portion of the priest who offered the blood and burnt the fat. Who could be thus typified save Jesus? He is both sacrifice and priest, offerer and victim. The rest of the sacrifice was eaten on the day or day after it was offered by the offerer and his friends. On the third day whatever remained must be burnt with fire, setting forth the weighty truth that communion cannot be prolonged beyond the measure of one’s spiritual power and capacity. Working oneself into fellowship with God, or the fleshly effort to maintain communion, is most certainly an abomination to the Lord (Lev. 7:18). The peace offering presents a truly wonderful sight; God, Christ, the Christian, and the Church together feeding — together delighting in Jesus, and in His love, person, and work.

Precious Saviour, Thou joy of our hearts, Thou infinitely Blessed One, maintain our communion uninterrupted until we see Thee face to face.

Sin Offering

Leviticus 4

The various sin offerings being identified with that which was in itself abhorrent to God, were not burnt on the altar, but were wholly consumed “outside the camp”; God thus marking His sense of the terrible character of sin, even when laid on Jesus — His soul’s delight — who “suffered without the gate,” saying, as the expression of His soul’s agony in that awful hour, “My God, My God, why hast Thou forsaken Me?” But let it ever be remembered, that even in those sacrifices which represented Jesus made sin for us, and thus only on the cross, officially obnoxious to God, that personally He never was more dear to His God and Father; for the blood (the life) was sprinkled before Jehovah, and in certain cases put upon the horns of the golden altar — worship; and upon the brazen altar — approach; while all the fat was burnt upon the altar, ascending to Jehovah and heaven as a sweet savour.

The various grades in the offerings express the various measures of apprehension found amongst God’s people in respect to the one sacrifice of Christ. If we have measures of apprehension, we have also degrees of sin, and this latter is specially pointed out here. The gravity of sin must be measured by the dignity of the offended One, and the relative position of the offender. First, then, we have the sin of the anointed priest (verses 3-12); secondly, of the whole congregation (verses 13-21); thirdly, of the ruler (verses 22-26); fourthly, of any of the common people (verses 27-35). If the priest, who represented the people before Jehovah, or the congregation, sinned, the blood — the witness of death — was sprinkled seven times (spiritual perfection) before the Lord, and also put upon the horns of the golden altar; this latter use of the blood was in order that the worship and communion of the redeemed congregation might be righteously and holily maintained, or, if lost, restored; but when a prince or ruler, or one of the common people transgressed, the worship of the Lord’s host was not necessarily interrupted, and hence, in their case the blood was merely put upon the horns of the brazen altar. The sin of the anointed priest, and the corporate sin of the whole congregation, were the most serious cases of any; on their sin the judgment of God rested more heavily than in the other cases, for in theirs only is it said that the sin offering was to be wholly burned outside the camp. It may be remarked, that so thoroughly is this aspect of the death of Jesus identified with the sin of man, that in the original it is the same word for ‘sin’ and ‘sin offering.’

All these sacrifices and the teachings based thereon have a solemn voice to us, and read us deeply impressive lessons, which may God grave upon our hearts.

Trespass Offering

Leviticus 5 and 6:7

The distinction between sin and trespass may here be pointed out. Trespass refers to acts done against God or man, sin to the root from whence these acts proceed. It will be observed that in the sin offerings, particular acts are not specified, as the immediate object is the condemnation of sin itself, there the man is regarded as a sinner, but in the various trespass offerings particular offences are carefully enumerated, and the man regarded as a transgressor. All transgression is sin, but all sin does not necessarily partake of the character of transgression. In the sin offerings the victim and the offerer are identified, the laying on of hands on the head of the victim being the fit expression of this identity; but this was never done in cases of trespass, although confession, full and ample, was required. Thus in the sin offerings the condemnation of sin is the great point, while in the trespass offerings the confession of sin is a necessity.

It is of profound importance to note carefully that sin is not measured by conscience or knowledge of what is evil, but by the holiness of God. Thus sins of ignorance were not excusable or passed lightly over, but had to be provided for in the most solemn manner possible (Lev. 4).

In the trespass offerings, to meet offences done against the Lord, whether known or unknown, the blood of a victim alone could suffice, besides the offender making ample amends for the harm done. In the first thirteen verses of chapter 5, the prescribed ritual is to meet sin and trespass together.

In cases of trespass against one’s neighbor, restitution for the wrong done must be full and ample, the principal had to be restored and a fifth part added. This would satisfy man’s claim, but even in these cases, forgiveness and atonement, as always, can only be obtained through the death of another, “for without the shedding of blood is no remission.” After these sacrifices had been duly instituted, and the laws regulating their due observance been established, the consecration of the priesthood naturally follows, which we do not enter upon here. Sacrifice necessarily precedes priesthood; yea, more, is the basis of all true acceptable worship, and the ground of the priestly grace of Jesus.

Offices and Gifts in the Church

Source and Purpose of the Offices and Gifts

Ephesians 4 teaches that the risen and ascended Head of the body is the source of all gifts. He gives: man does not appoint, nor come in mediatorily. There are some apostles, some prophets: these are foundation gifts (Eph. 2:20), not intended to be continued, though in a secondary sense there may be prophets still, through whom the written Word is sometimes ministered in soul-reaching power. There have been at any solemn crisis in the church’s history special servants raised up to recover apostolic foundations — Luther, for instance — and who in that sense have approached to apostolic service.

Evangelists are to bring in, as it were, recruits from the world. Pastors and teachers are closely connected, and are often perhaps found in the same person. The pastor has an aptitude to care for souls, entering into the details of their needs in this world; a teacher is one able to open up Scripture, and to exhibit the mind of God from the Word.

The love of Christ for His church will never allow gifts to fail: they have the edification of the body for their object, and will be continued until the church is complete (Eph. 4:12-13).

Apostles, or apostolic delegates, appointed to offices; but never ordained any one to preach the gospel, or to teach the saints, as is now done in Christendom. The apostles were appointed by Christ while in the flesh, and sent forth again from Him risen; but the gifts for the body are from the glorified Head.

Sometimes the Holy Spirit was conferred through their laying on of hands, and in Timothy’s case the apostle conveyed to him also a gift of the Spirit, and even associated the elders with himself in the laying on of hands (2 Tim. 1:6; 1 Tim. 4:14).

In all the instances of appointing to offices it is either Paul himself, or those authorised by him, that made the appointments. This is what we might have expected when we remember that to him was committed the gospel of the glory and the mystery of the church. Paul had no successor, nor had those to whom he gave authority any power to communicate it to others: so that all such pretension is entirely without Scriptural warrant. Godly men may do the work of bishops, elders, and deacons without any appointment, as we read of some who addicted themselves to the ministry of the saints, and to whom the saints were exhorted to submit themselves (1 Cor. 16:16; see also 1 Thess. 5:12).

Quotations from the Old Testament in the New

These quotations are important inasmuch as they show that God is the Author of the whole Bible. The quotations are not found simply in one or two books of the New Testament, but run through the whole; nor are the quotations from one division of the Old Testament only, but are from the books of Moses, from the Psalms, and from the Prophets.

The way in which some of the quotations are introduced, and at times from the lips of the Lord Jesus, stamps the writings of the Old Testament as inspired of God. Constantly the words are “It is written,” not simply as what Moses or one of the prophets had written, but as being of authority as part of God’s Word, and in other places are called ‘the Scriptures,’ as we say of an Act of Parliament, “It is enacted.” At times it is “God commanded” (Matt. 15:4); “David himself said by the Holy Ghost” (Mark 12:36); “Spake the Holy Ghost by Esaias the prophet” (Acts 28:25); “As the Holy Ghost saith” (Heb. 3:7). Words cannot more plainly show how the Old Testament was viewed by Christ Himself and by the writers of the New Testament, they being also inspired by the Holy Spirit.

It is important to notice the way in which the prophecies of the Old Testament are quoted in the New as to their being fulfilled. The difference may not always be manifest in the Authorized Version; but there is a difference.

Some are introduced thus:

(1.) In order (ἵνα) that it might be fulfilled. As Matthew 1:22; 2:15; 4:14; 21:4; 26:56; 27:35; Mark 14:49; John 12:38; 13:18; 15:25; 17:12; 18:9,32; 19:24,28,36.

(2.) So that (ὅπως) it might be fulfilled. Matthew 2:23; 8:17; 12:17; 13:35.

(3.) Then (τοτε) was fulfilled. Matthew 2:17; 27:9.

(4.) Was fulfilled. Mark 15:28.

(5.) This day is fulfilled. Luke 4:21.

The first gives the purpose of the prophecy: an event happened in order that a particular prophecy should be fulfilled — this is the fulfilment of that prophecy.

The second falls within the scope of the prophecy, but it is not restricted to a particular time: may be true at one time, or at many different times.

The third is an occasion when the prophecy can be applied, without its being the purpose of the prophecy.

The fourth and fifth declare that the prophecy was then and there fulfilled.

A study of the above will show that the writers were led by God by the way they introduced the quotations, so that the different expressions are never confounded.

In the following quotations the readings of the Septuagint are given according to Sir C. Brenton’s translation. The other two columns are the Authorized Version.

Besides the list following, there are many allusions to the Old Testament in the New, and places where the actual words are used, but which cannot be said to be quotations. For instance, Psalm 8 is quoted in 1 Corinthians 15:27 in reference to Christ in resurrection; also in Hebrews 2:6-8 in reference to the world to come: all things are His; but this is not seen yet. The words, “Hath put all things under His feet,” occur also in Ephesians 1:22, where Christ is Head over all things “to the church.” These words occur in Psalm 8 but this is not reckoned as a quotation. See also in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5) what was “said by them of old time.”

Some passages in the Old Testament are quoted more than once, and at times in different connections. For instance, Habakkuk 2:4 is quoted in Romans 1:17, where it is a question of righteousness: “The just shall live by faith.” Again in Galatians 3:11, where it is in contrast to the law: “The just shall live by faith.” Again in Hebrews 10:38, where it is in contrast to drawing back: “The just shall live by faith.”

The chapters and verses of the Hebrew are given according to the English version, but the chapters and verses of the Septuagint are given as in that translation.

THE SEPTUAGINT	NEW TESTAMENT	THE HEBREW
Isa. 7:14.	Matt. 1:22-23.	Isa. 7:14.
Behold, a virgin shall conceive in the womb, and shall bring forth a son, and thou shalt call His name Emmanuel.	That it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the Lord by the prophet, saying, Behold, a virgin shall be with child, and shall bring forth a son, and they shall call His name Emmanuel.	Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call His name Immanuel.
Mic. 5:2.	Matt. 2:5-6.	Mic. 5:2.
And thou, Bethlehem, house of Ephratha, art few in number to be reckoned among the thousands of Juda; yet out of thee shall one come forth to Me, to be a ruler of Israel.	It is written by the prophet, And thou Bethlehem, in the land of Juda, art not the least among the princes of Juda: for out of thee shall come a Governor, that shall rule My people Israel.	But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, yet out of thee shall He come forth unto Me that is to be ruler in Israel.
Hos. 11:1.	Matt. 2:15.	Hos. 11:1.
Out of Egypt have I called his children.	That it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the Lord by the prophet, saying, Out of Egypt have I called My son.	And called My son out of Egypt.
Jer. 38:15.	Matt. 2:17-18.	Jer. 31:15.
A voice was heard in Rama, of lamentation, and of weeping, and wailing; Rachel would not cease weeping for her children, because they are not.	Then was fulfilled that which was spoken by Jeremy the prophet, saying, In Rama was there a voice heard, lamentation, and weeping, and great mourning, Rachel weeping for her children, and would not be comforted, because they are not.	A voice was heard in Ramah, lamentation, and bitter weeping; Rahel weeping for her children refused to be comforted for her children, because they were not.
	Matt. 2:23.
	That it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophets, He shall be called a Nazarene.	[The sense of the prophets: see Isa. 53, Psa. 22.]
	Matt. 3:3. See Luke 3:4.
Deut. 8:3.	Matt. 4:4.	Deut. 8:3.
Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceeds out of the mouth of God shall man live.	It is written, Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God.	Man doth not live by bread only, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of the Lord doth man live.
Psa. 91:11-12.	Matt. 4:6.	Psa. 91:11-12.
He shall give His angels charge concerning thee, to keep thee in all thy ways. They shall bear thee up on their hands, lest at any time thou dash thy foot against a stone.	It is written, He shall give His angels charge concerning thee: and in their hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any time thou dash thy foot against a stone.	He shall give His angels charge over thee, to keep thee in all thy ways. They shall bear thee up in their hands, lest thou dash thy foot against a stone.
Deut. 6:16.	Matt. 4:7.	Deut. 6:16.
Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God.	It is written again, Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God.	Ye shall not tempt the Lord your God.
Deut. 6:13.	Matt. 4:10.	Deut. 6:13.
Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God, and Him only shalt thou serve.	It is written, Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and Him only shalt thou serve.	Thou shalt fear the Lord thy God, and serve Him.
Isa. 9:1-2.	Matt. 4:14-16.	Isa. 9:1-2.
Drink this first. Act quickly, O land of Zabulon, land of Nephthalim, and the rest inhabiting the sea-coast, and the land beyond Jordan, Galilee of the Gentiles. O people walking in darkness, behold a great light: ye that dwell in the region and shadow of death, a light shall shine upon you.	That it might be fulfilled which was spoken by Esaias the prophet, saying, The land of Zabulon, and the land of Nephthalim, by the way of the sea, beyond Jordan, Galilee of the Gentiles; the people which sat in darkness saw great light; and to them which sat in the region and shadow of death light is sprung up.	When at the first He lightly afflicted the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, and afterward did more grievously afflict her by the way of the sea, beyond Jordan, in Galilee of the nations. The people that walked in darkness have seen a great light: they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath the light shined.
Isa. 53:4.	Matt. 8:17.	Isa. 53:4.
He bears our sins, and is pained for us.	That it might be fulfilled which was spoken by Esaias the prophet, saying, Himself took our infirmities, and bare our sicknesses.	He hath borne our griefs, and carried our sorrows.
Hos. 6:7.	Matt. 9:13; 12:7.	Hos. 6:6.
I will have mercy rather than sacrifice.	I will have mercy, and not sacrifice.	I desired mercy, and not sacrifice.
Mal. 3:1.	Matt. 11:10.	Mal. 3:1.
Behold, I send forth My messenger, and he shall survey the way before Me.	It is written, Behold, I send My messenger before thy face, which shall prepare thy way before thee.	Behold, I will send My messenger, and he shall prepare the way before Me.
Isa. 42:1-4.	Matt. 12:17-21.	Isa. 42:1-4.
Jacob is My servant, I will help him: Israel is My chosen, My soul has accepted Him; I have put My Spirit upon Him; He shall bring forth judgment to the Gentiles. He shall not cry, nor lift up His voice, nor shall His voice be heard without. A bruised reed shall He not break, and smoking flax shall He not quench; but He shall bring forth judgment to truth. He shall shine out, and shall not be discouraged, until He have set judgment on the earth: and in His name shall the Gentiles trust.	That it might be fulfilled which was spoken by Esaias the prophet, saying, Behold My servant, whom I have chosen; My beloved, in whom My soul is well pleased: I will put My spirit upon Him, and He shall shew judgment to the Gentiles. He shall not strive, nor cry; neither shall any man hear His voice in the streets. A bruised reed shall He not break, and smoking flax shall He not quench, till He send forth judgment unto victory. And in His name shall the Gentiles trust.	Behold My servant, whom I uphold; Mine elect, in whom My soul delighteth; I have put My spirit upon Him: He shall bring forth judgment to the Gentiles. He shall not cry, nor lift up, nor cause His voice to be heard in the street. A bruised reed shall He not break, and the smoking flax shall He not quench: He shall bring forth judgment unto truth. He shall not fail nor be discouraged, till He have set judgment in the earth: and the isles shall wait for His law.
Isa. 6:8-10.	Matt. 13:14-15.	Isa. 6:9-10.
Go, and say to this people, Ye shall hear indeed, but ye shall not understand; and ye shall see indeed, but ye shall not perceive. For the heart of this people has become gross, and their ears are dull of hearing, and their eyes have they closed; lest they should see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and understand with their heart, and be converted, and I should heal them.	In them is fulfilled the prophecy of Esaias, which saith, By hearing ye shall hear, and shall not understand; and seeing ye shall see, and shall not perceive: for this people’s heart is waxed gross, and their ears are dull of hearing, and their eyes they have closed; lest at any time they should see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and should understand with their heart, and should be converted, and I should heal them.	Go, and tell this people, Hear ye indeed, but understand not; and see ye indeed, but perceive not. Make the heart of this people fat, and make their ears heavy, and shut their eyes; lest they see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and understand with their heart, and convert, and be healed.
Psa. 78:2.	Matt. 13:35.	Psa. 78:2.
I will open My mouth in parables: I will utter dark sayings which have been from the beginning.	That it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet, saying, I will open My mouth in parables; I will utter things which have been kept secret from the foundation of the world.	I will open My mouth in a parable: I will utter dark sayings of old.
Ex. 20:12; 21:16.	Matt. 15:4.	Ex. 20:12; 21:17.
Honour thy father and thy mother.	God commanded, saying, Honour thy father and mother: and, He that curseth father or mother, let him die the death.	Honour thy father and thy mother.
He that reviles his father or his mother shall surely die.		He that curseth his father, or his mother, shall surely be put to death.
Isa. 29:13.	Matt. 15:7-9.	Isa. 29:13.
This people draw nigh to Me with their mouth, and they honour Me with their lips, but their heart is far from Me: but in vain do they worship Me, teaching the commandments and doctrines of men.	Well did Esaias prophesy of you, saying, This people draweth nigh unto Me with their mouth, and honoureth Me with their lips; but their heart is far from Me. But in vain they do worship Me, teaching for doctrines the commandments of men.	This people draw near Me with their mouth, and with their lips do honour Me, but have removed their heart far from Me, and their fear toward Me is taught by the precept of men.
Gen. 1:27.	Matt. 19:4.	Gen. 1:27.
Male and female He made them.	Have ye not read, that He which made them at the beginning made them male and female.	Male and female created He them.
Gen. 2:24.	Matt. 19:5.	Gen. 2:24.
Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother and shall cleave to his wife, and they two shall be one flesh.	And said, For this cause shall a man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall be one flesh?	Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh.
Ex. 20:12-16; Lev. 19:18.	Matt. 19:18-19.	Ex. 20:12-16; Lev. 19:18.
Honour thy father and thy mother…. Thou shalt not commit adultery. Thou shalt not steal. Thou shalt not kill. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.	Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.	Honour thy father and thy mother.... Thou shalt not kill. Thou shalt not commit adultery. Thou shalt not steal. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor.
		Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.
Zech. 9:9.	Matt. 21:4-5.	Zech. 9:9.
Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Sion; proclaim it aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem; behold, the King is coming to thee, just, and a Saviour; He is meek and riding on an ass, and a young foal.	That it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet, saying, Tell ye the daughter of Sion, Behold, thy King cometh unto thee, meek, and sitting upon an ass, and a colt the foal of an ass.	Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: behold, thy King cometh unto thee: He is just, and having salvation; lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass.
Isa. 56:7; Jer. 7:11.	Matt. 21:13.	Isa. 56:7; Jer. 7:11.
My house shall be called a house of prayer for all nations. Is My house, whereon My name is called, a den of robbers in your eyes?	It is written, My house shall be called the house of prayer; but ye have made it a den of thieves.	Mine house shall be called an house of prayer for all people. Is this house, which is called by My name, become a den of robbers in your eyes?
Psa. 8:2.	Matt. 21:16.	Psa. 8:2.
Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings hast Thou perfected praise.	Have ye never read, Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings Thou hast perfected praise?	Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings hast Thou ordained strength.
Psa. 118:22-23.	Matt. 21:42.	Psa. 118:22-23.
The stone which the builders rejected, the same is become the head of the corner. This has been done of the Lord; and it is wonderful in our eyes.	Did ye never read in the Scriptures, The stone which the builders rejected, the same is become the head of the corner: this is the Lord’s doing, and it is marvellous in our eyes?	The stone which the builders refused is become the head stone of the corner. This is the Lord’s doing; it is marvellous in our eyes.
Deut. 25:5.	Matt. 22:24.	Deut. 25:5.
If brethren should live together, and one of them should die, and should not have seed, the wife of the deceased shall not marry out of the family to a man not related: her husband’s brother shall go in to her, and shall take her to himself for a wife, and shall dwell with her.	Moses said, If a man die, having no children, his brother shall marry his wife, and raise up seed unto his brother.	If brethren dwell together, and one of them die, and have no child, the wife of the dead shall not marry without unto a stranger: her husband’s brother shall go in unto her, and take her to him to wife, and perform the duty of an husband’s brother unto her.
Ex. 3:6.	Matt. 22:31-32.	Ex. 3:6.
I am the God of thy father, the God of Abraam, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.	Have ye not read that which was spoken unto you by God, saying, I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob?	I am the God of thy father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.
	Matt. 22:37. See Mark 12:29.
	Matt. 22:39. See ch. 19:18.
Psa. 110:1.	Matt. 22:43-44.	Psa. 110:1.
The Lord said to My Lord, Sit thou on My right hand, until I make Thine enemies Thy footstool.	How then doth David in spirit call Him Lord, saying, the Lord said unto My Lord, Sit thou on My right hand, till I make Thine enemies Thy footstool?	The Lord said unto My Lord, Sit thou at My right hand, until I make Thine enemies Thy footstool.

Zech. 13:7.	Matt. 26:31.	Zech. 13:7.
Smite the shepherds, and draw out the sheep.	For it is written, I will smite the shepherd, and the sheep of the flock shall be scattered abroad.	Smite the Shepherd, and the sheep shall be scattered.
Zech. 11:13.	Matt. 27:9-10.	Zech. 11:13.
Drop them into the furnace, and I will see if it is good metal, as I was proved for their sakes. And I took the thirty pieces of silver, and cast them into the furnace in the house of the Lord.	Then was fulfilled that which was spoken by Jeremy the prophet, saying, And they took the thirty pieces of silver, the price of Him that was valued, whom they of the children of Israel did value; and gave them for the potter’s field, as the Lord appointed Me.	And the Lord said unto me, Cast it unto the potter: a goodly price that I was prised at of them. And I took the thirty pieces of silver, and cast them to the potter in the house of the Lord.
Psa. 22:18.	Matt. 27:35.	Psa. 22:18.
They parted My garments among themselves, and cast lots upon My raiment.	That it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet, They parted My garments among them, and upon My vesture did they cast lots.	They part My garments among them, and cast lots upon My vesture.
Psa. 22:1.	Matt. 27:46.	Psa. 22:1.
O God, My God, attend to Me: why hast thou forsaken Me?	Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani? that is to say, My God, My God, why hast Thou forsaken Me?	My God, My God, why hast Thou forsaken Me?
	Mark 1:2. See Matt. 11:10.
	Mark 1:3. See Luke 3:4.
	Mark 4:12. See Matt. 13:14.
	Mark 7:6-7. See Matt. 15:7.
	Mark 7:10. See Matt. 15:4.
	Mark 10:6. See Matt. 19:4.
	Mark 10:7-8. See Matt. 19:5.
	Mark 10:19. See Matt. 19:18-19.
	Mark 11:17. See Matt. 21:13.
	Mark 12:10-11. See Matt. 21:42.
	Mark 12:19. See Matt. 22:24.
	Mark 12:26. See Matt. 22:31.
Deut. 6:4-5.	Mark 12:29-30.	Deut. 6:4-5.
Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord. And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy mind, and with all thy soul, and all thy strength.	The first of all the commandments is, Hear, O Israel; The Lord our God is one Lord: And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength: this is the first commandment.	Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord: and thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might.
	Mark 12:31. See Matt. 19:18.
	Mark 12:36. See Matt. 22:44.
	Mark 14:27. See Matt. 26:31.

Isa. 53:12.	Mark 15:28.	Isa 53:12.
And He was numbered among the transgressors.	The scripture was fulfilled, which saith, And He was numbered with the transgressors.	And He was numbered with the transgressors.
	Mark 15:34. see Matt. 27:46.
Mal. 4:4-5.	Luke 1:17.	Mal. 4:5-6.
Behold, I will send to you Elias the Thesbite, before the great and glorious day of the Lord comes; who shall turn again the heart of the father to the son, and the heart of a man to his neighbor.	He shall go before Him in the spirit and power of Elias, to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the just; to make ready a people prepared for the Lord.	Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord: and he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers.
Ex. 13:2.	Luke 2:23.	Ex. 13:2.
Sanctify to Me every first-born, first produced, opening every womb among the children of Israel.	As it is written in the law of the Lord, Every male that openeth the womb shall be called holy to the Lord.	Sanctify unto Me all the firstborn, whatsoever openeth the womb among the children of Israel.
Lev. 12:8.	Luke 2:24.	Lev. 12:8.
Two turtle-doves or two young pigeons.	According to that which is said in the law of the Lord, A pair of turtledoves, or two young pigeons.	Two turtles, or two young pigeons.
Isa. 40:3-5.	Luke 3:4-6.	Isa. 40:3-5.
The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make straight the paths of our God. Every valley shall be filled, and every mountain and hill shall be brought low: and all the crooked ways shall become straight, and the rough places plains. And the glory of the Lord shall appear, and all flesh shall see the salvation of God.	As it is written in the book of the words of Esaias the prophet, saying, The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make His paths straight. Every valley shall be filled, and every mountain and hill shall be brought low; and the crooked shall be made straight, and the rough ways shall be made smooth; and all flesh shall see the salvation of God.	The voice of him that crieth in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill shall be made low: and the crooked shall be made straight, and the rough places plain: and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.
	Luke 4:4. See Matt. 4:4.
	Luke 4:8. See Matt. 4:10.
	Luke 4:10-11. See Matt. 4:6.
	Luke 4:12. See Matt. 4:7.
Isa. 61:1-2.	Luke 4:18-19.	Isa. 61:1-2.
The Spirit of the Lord is upon Me, because He has anointed Me; He has sent Me to preach glad tidings to the poor, to heal the broken in heart, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and recovery of sight to the blind; to declare the acceptable year of the Lord.	It was written, The Spirit of the Lord is upon Me, because He hath anointed Me to preach the gospel to the poor; He hath sent Me to heal the broken-hearted, to preach deliverance to the captives, and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty them that are bruised, to preach the acceptable year of the Lord.	The Spirit of the Lord God is upon Me; because the Lord hath anointed Me to preach good tidings unto the meek; He hath sent Me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and the opening of the prison to them that are bound; to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord.
	Luke 7:27. See Matt. 11:10. Luke 8:10. See Matt. 13:14. Luke 10:27. See Mark 12:29-30. Luke 10:27. See Matt. 19:18. Luke 18:20. See Matt. 19:18. Luke 19:46. See Matt. 21:13. Luke 20:17. See Matt. 21:42. Luke 20:28. See Matt. 22:24. Luke 20:37. See Matt. 22:31. Luke 20:42. See Matt. 22:43. Luke 22:37. See Mark 15:28.
Psa. 31:5.	Luke 23:46.	Psa. 31:5.
Into Thine hands I will commit My spirit.	Into Thy hands I commend My spirit.	Into Thine hand I commit My spirit.
	John 1:23. See Luke 3:4.
Psa. 69:9.	John 2:17.	Psa. 69:9.
The zeal of Thine house has eaten Me up.	It was written, The zeal of Thine house hath eaten Me up.	The zeal of Thine house hath eaten Me up.
Psa. 78:24.	John 6:31.	Psa. 78:24.
And gave them the bread of heaven.	As it is written, He gave them bread from heaven to eat.	And had given them of the corn of heaven.
Isa. 54:13.	John 6:45.	Isa. 54:13.
I will cause all thy sons to be taught of God.	It is written in the prophets, And they shall be all taught of God.	All thy children shall be taught of the Lord.
	John 7:38.	[Scope of promised blessing, see Isa. 63:11; 44:3-4.]
	He that believeth on Me, as the scripture hath said, out of his belly shall flow rivers of living water.	[Scope of promised blessing, see Isa. 63:11; 44:3-4.]
Deut. 19:15.	John 8:17.	Deut. 19:15.
By the mouth of two witnesses, or by the mouth of three witnesses, shall every word be established.	It is also written in your law, that the testimony of two men is true.	At the mouth of two witnesses, or at the mouth of three witnesses, shall the matter be established.
Psa. 82:6.	John 10:34.	Psa. 82:6.
I have said, Ye are gods.	Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods?	I have said, Ye are gods.
	John 12:15. See Matt. 21:4.
Isa. 53:1.	John 12:38.	Isa. 53:1.
O Lord, who has believed our report? and to whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?	That the saying of Esaias the prophet might be fulfilled, which he spake, Lord, who hath believed our report? and to whom hath the arm of the Lord been revealed?	Who hath believed our report? and to whom is the arm of the Lord revealed?
	John 12:40. See Matt. 13:14-15.
Psa. 41:9.	John 13:18.	Psa. 41:9.
Even the man of My peace … who ate My bread, lifted up his heel against Me.	That the scripture may be fulfilled, He that eateth bread with Me hath lifted up his heel against Me.	Mine own familiar friend … which did eat of My bread, hath lifted up his heel against Me.
Psa. 35:19.	John 15:25.	Psa. 35:19.
Who hate me for nothing.	That the word might be fulfilled that is written in their law, They hated Me without a cause.	That hate Me without a cause.
	John 19:24. See Matt. 27:35.
Ex. 12:46.	John 19:36.	Ex. 12:46.
And a bone of it ye shall not break.	That the scripture should be fulfilled, A bone of Him shall not be broken.	Neither shall ye break a bone thereof.
Zech. 12:10.	John 19:37.	Zech. 12:10.
And they shall look upon Me, because they have mocked Me.	Another scripture saith, They shall look on Him whom they pierced.	And they shall look upon Me whom they have pierced.
Psa. 69:25.	Acts 1:20.	Psa. 69:25.
Let their habitation be made desolate; and let there be no inhabitant in their tents.	For it is written in the book of Psalms, Let his habitation be desolate, and let no man dwell therein.	Let their habitation be desolate; and let none dwell in their tents.
Psa. 109:8.	Acts 1:20,	Psa. 109:8.
And let another take his office of overseer.	And his bishoprick let another take.	Let another take his office.

Joel 2:28-32.	Acts 2:16-25.	Joel 2:28-32.
And it shall come to pass afterward, that I will pour out of my Spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, and your old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions. And on my servants and on my handmaids in those days will I pour out of my Spirit. And I will show wonders in heaven and upon the earth, blood, and fire, and vapor of smoke. The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and glorious day of the Lord come. And it shall come to pass that whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be saved.	That which was spoken by the prophet Joel; And it shall come to pass in the last days, saith God, I will pour out of My Spirit upon all flesh: and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men shall dream dreams: and on My servants and on My handmaidens I will pour out in those days of My Spirit; and they shall prophesy: and I will show wonders in heaven above, and signs in the earth beneath; blood, and fire, and vapour of smoke: the sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before that great and notable day of the Lord come: and it shall come to pass, that whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be saved.	And it shall come to pass afterward, that I will pour out My Spirit upon all flesh; and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions: and also upon the servants and upon the handmaids in those days will I pour out My Spirit. And I will shew wonders in the heavens and in the earth, blood, and fire, and pillars of smoke. The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and the terrible day of the Lord come. And it shall come to pass, that whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be delivered.
Psa. 16:8-11.	Acts 2:25-28.	Psa. 16:8-11.
I foresaw the Lord always before my face; for He is on my right hand, that I should not be moved. Therefore my heart rejoiced and my tongue exulted; moreover also my flesh shall rest in hope: because thou wilt not	For David speaketh concerning him, I foresaw the Lord always before my face, for He is on my right hand, that I should not be moved: therefore did my heart rejoice, and my tongue was glad; moreover also my flesh	I have set the Lord always before me: because He is at my right hand, I shall not be moved. Therefore my heart is glad, and my glory rejoiceth: my flesh also shall rest in hope. For Thou
leave my soul in hell, neither wilt thou suffer thine Holy One to see corruption. Thou hast made known to me the ways of life; thou wilt fill me with joy with thy countenance.	shall rest in hope: because thou wilt not leave my soul in hell, neither wilt thou suffer thine Holy One to see corruption. Thou hast made known to me the ways of life; thou shalt make me full of joy with thy countenance.	wilt not leave my soul in hell; neither wilt Thou suffer thine Holy One to see corruption. Thou wilt show me the path of life: in Thy presence is fulness of joy.
	Acts 2:34-35. See Matt. 22:43.
Deut. 18:15,19.	Acts 3:22-23.	Deut. 18:15,19.
The Lord thy God shall raise up to thee a Prophet of thy brethren, like Me; Him shall ye hear. And whatever man shall not hearken to whatsoever words that prophet shall speak in My name, I will take vengeance on him.	Moses truly said unto the fathers, A prophet shall the Lord your God raise up unto you of your brethren, like unto Me; Him shall ye hear in all things whatsoever He shall say unto you. And it shall come to pass, that every soul, which will not hear that prophet, shall be destroyed from among the people.	The Lord thy God will raise up unto thee a Prophet from the midst of thee, of thy brethren, like unto Me; unto Him ye shall hearken. … And it shall come to pass, that whosoever will not hearken unto My words which He shall speak in My name, I will require it of him.
Gen. 22:17.	Acts 3:25.	Gen. 22:18.
In thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed.	Saying unto Abraham, And in thy seed shall all the kindreds of the earth be blessed.	In thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed.
	Acts 4:11. See Matt. 21:42.
Psa. 2:1-2.	Acts 4:25-26.	Psa. 2:1-2.
Wherefore did the heathen rage, and the nations imagine vain things? The kings of the earth stood up, and the rulers gathered themselves together, against the Lord, and against his Christ.	Who by the mouth of thy servant David hast said, Why did the heathen rage, and the people imagine vain things? The kings of the earth stood up, and the rulers were gathered together against the Lord, and against his Christ.	Why do the heathen rage, and the people imagine a vain thing? The kings of the earth set themselves, and the rulers take counsel together, against the Lord, and against His anointed.
Gen. 12:1.	Acts 7:3.	Gen. 12:1.
Go forth out of thy land and out of thy kindred, and out of the house of thy father, and come into the land which I shall shew thee.	And said unto him, Get thee out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and come into the land which I shall shew thee.	Get thee out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and from thy father’s house, unto a land that I will shew thee.
Gen. 15:13-14.	Acts 7:6-7.	Gen. 15:13-14.
Thy seed shall be a sojourner in a land not their own, and they shall enslave them, and afflict them, and humble them four hundred years. And the nation whomsoever they shall serve I will judge; and after this, they shall come forth hither with much property.	God spake on this wise, That his seed should sojourn in a strange land; and that they should bring them into bondage, and entreat them evil four hundred years. And the nation to whom they shall be in bondage will I Judge, said God: and after that shall they come forth, and serve me in this place.	Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them four hundred years; and also that nation, whom they shall serve, will I judge: and afterward shall they come out with great substance.
	Acts 7:32. See Matt. 22:32.
Ex. 3:5,7-8,10.	Acts 7:33-34.	Ex. 3:5,7-8,10.
Draw not nigh hither: loose thy sandals from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground. I have surely seen the affliction of My people that is in Egypt, and I have heard their cry … And I have come down to deliver them. And now come, I will send thee to Pharao king of Egypt.	Then said the Lord to him, Put off thy shoes from thy feet: for the place where thou standest is holy ground. I have seen, I have seen the affliction of my people which is in Egypt, and I have heard their groaning, and am come down to deliver them. And now come, I will send thee into Egypt.	Put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground. I have surely seen the affliction of My people which are in Egypt, and have heard their cry … And I am come down to deliver them. Come now therefore, and I will send thee unto Pharaoh.
Ex. 2:14.	Acts 7:35.	Ex. 2:14.
Who made thee a ruler and a judge over us?	Who made thee a ruler and a judge?	Who made thee a prince and a judge over us?
	Acts 7:37. See ch. 3:22.
Ex. 32:1.	Acts 7:40.	Ex. 32:1.
Make us gods who shall go before us; for this Moses, the man who brought us forth out of the land of Egypt — we do not know what is become of him.	Make us gods to go before us: for as for this Moses, which brought us out of the land of Egypt, we wot not what is become of him.	Make us gods, which shall go before us; for as for this Moses, the man that brought us up out of the land of Egypt, we wot not what is become of him.
Amos 5:25-27.	Acts 7:42-43.	Amos 5:25-27.
Have ye offered to Me victims and sacrifices, O house of Israel, forty years in the wilderness? Yea, ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, and the star of your god Raephan, the images of them which ye made for yourselves. And I will carry you away beyond Damascus.	As it is written in the book of the prophets, O ye house of Israel, have ye offered to Me slain beasts and sacrifices by the space of forty years in the wilderness? Yea, ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, and the star of your god Remphan, figures which ye made to worship them: and I will carry you away beyond Babylon.	Have ye offered unto Me sacrifices and offerings in the wilderness forty years, O house of Israel? But ye have borne the tabernacle of your Moloch and Chiun your images, the star of your god, which ye made to yourselves. Therefore will I cause you to go into captivity beyond Damascus.
Isa. 66:1-2.	Acts 7:48-50.	Isa. 66:1-2.
Heaven is My throne, and the earth is My footstool: what kind of a house will ye build Me? and of what kind is to be the place of My rest? For all these things are Mine.	Saith the prophet, Heaven is My throne, and earth is My footstool: what house will ye build Me? saith the Lord: or what is the place of My rest? Hath not My hand made all these things?	The heaven is My throne, and the earth is My footstool: where is the house that ye build unto Me? and where is the place of My rest? For all those things hath Mine hand made.

Isa. 53:7-8.	Acts 8:32-33.	Isa. 53:7-8.
He was led as a sheep to the slaughter, and as a lamb before the shearer is dumb, so He opens not his mouth. In His humiliation His judgment was taken away: who shall declare His generation? for His life is taken away from the earth.	The place of the scripture which he read was this, He was led as a sheep to the slaughter; and like a lamb dumb before his shearer, so opened He not his mouth: in His humiliation His judgment was taken away: and who shall declare His generation? for His life is taken from the earth.	He is brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb, so He openeth not his mouth. He was taken from prison and from judgment: and who shall declare His generation? for He was cut off out of the land of the living.
1 Kings 13:14.	Acts 13:22.	1 Sam. 13:14.
The Lord shall seek for Himself a man after His own heart.	He gave testimony and said, I have found David the son of Jesse, a man after Mine own heart, which shall fulfil all My will.	The Lord hath sought Him a man after His own heart.
Psa. 2:7.	Acts 13:33.	Psa. 2:7.
Thou art My Son, to-day have I begotten Thee.	It is also written in the second Psalm, Thou art My Son, this day have I begotten Thee.	Thou art My Son; this day have I begotten Thee.
Isa. 55:3.	Acts 13:34.	Isa. 55:3.
I will make with you an everlasting covenant, the sure mercies of David.	He said on this wise, I will give you the sure mercies of David.	I will make an everlasting covenant with you, even the sure mercies of David.
Psa. 16:10.	Acts 13:35.	Psa. 16:10.
Neither wilt Thou suffer Thine Holy One to see corruption.	He saith … Thou shalt not suffer Thine Holy One to see corruption.	Neither wilt Thou suffer Thine Holy One to see corruption.
Hab. 1:5.	Acts 13:40-41.	Hab. 1:5.
Behold, ye despisers, and look, and wonder marvellously, and vanish: for I work a work in your days, which ye will in no wise believe, though a man declare it to you.	Which is spoken of in the prophets; behold, ye despisers, and wonder, and perish: for I work a work in your days, a work which ye shall in no wise believe, though a man declare it unto you.	Behold ye among the heathen, and regard, and wonder marvellously: for I will work a work in your days, which ye will not believe, though it be told you.
Isa. 49:6.	Acts 13:47.	Isa. 49:6.
I have given thee for the covenant of a race, for a light of the Gentiles, that thou shouldest be for salvation to the end of the earth.	So hath the Lord commanded us, saying, I have set thee to be a light of the Gentiles, that thou shouldest be for salvation unto the ends of the earth.	I will also give thee for a light to the Gentiles, that thou mayest be my salvation unto the end of the earth.
Amos 9:11-12.	Acts 15:15-17.	Amos 9:11-12.
In that day I will raise up the tabernacle of David that is fallen, and will rebuild the ruins of it, and will set up the parts thereof that have been broken down, and will build it up as in the ancient days: that the remnant of men, and all the Gentiles upon whom My name is called, may earnestly seek Me, saith the Lord who does all these things.	As it is written, After this I will return, and will build again the tabernacle of David, which is fallen down; and I will build again the ruins thereof, and I will set it up: that the residue of men might seek after the Lord, and all the Gentiles, upon whom My name is called, saith the Lord, who doeth all these things.	In that day will I raise up the tabernacle of David that is fallen, and close up the breaches thereof; and I will raise up his ruins, and I will build it as in the days of old: that they may possess the remnant of Edom, and of all the heathen, which are called by My name, saith the Lord that doeth this.
Ex. 22:28.	Acts 23:5.	Ex. 22:28.
Thou shalt not … speak ill of the ruler of thy people.	It is written, Thou shalt not speak evil of the ruler of thy people.	Thou shalt not … curse the ruler of thy people.
	Acts 28:26-27. See Matt. 13:14.
	Rom. 1:17. See Heb. 10:37-38.
Isa. 52:5.	Rom. 2:24.	Isa. 52:5.
On account of you My name is continually blasphemed among the Gentiles.	For the name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles through you, as it is written.	And My name continually every day is blasphemed.
Psa. 51:4.	Rom. 3:4.	Psa. 51:4.
That Thou mightest be justified in Thy sayings, and mightest overcome when Thou art judged.	As it is written, That Thou mightest be justified in Thy sayings, and mightest overcome when Thou art judged.	That Thou mightest be justified when Thou speakest, and be clear when Thou judgest.
Psa. 14:1-3.	Rom. 3:10-12.	Psa. 14:1-3.
There is none that does goodness, there is not even so much as one. The Lord looked down from heaven upon the sons of men, to see if there were any that understood, or sought after God. They are all gone out of the way, they are together become good for nothing, there is none that does good, no not one.	As it is written, There is none righteous, no, not one: there is none that understandeth, there is none that seeketh after God. They are all gone out of the way, they are together become unprofitable; there is none that doeth good, no, not one.	They are corrupt, they have done abominable works, there is none that doeth good. The Lord looked down from heaven upon the children of men, to see if there were any that did understand, and seek God. They are all gone aside, they are all together become filthy: there is none that doeth good, no, not one.
Psa. 5:9.	Rom. 3:13.	Psa. 5:9.
Their throat is an open sepulchre; with their tongues they have used deceit.	Their throat is an open sepulchre; with their tongues they have used deceit.	Their throat is an open sepulchre; they flatter with their tongue.
Psa. 140:3.	Rom. 3:13.	Psa. 140:3.
The poison of asps is under their lips.	The poison of asps is under their lips.	Adders’ poison is under their lips.
Psa. 10:7.	Rom. 3:14.	Psa. 10:7.
Whose mouth is full of cursing, and bitterness, and fraud.	Whose mouth is full of cursing and bitterness.	His mouth is full of cursing and deceit.
Isa. 59:7-8.	Rom. 3:15-17.	Isa. 59:7-8.
And their feet run to wickedness, swift to shed blood … destruction and misery are in their ways; and the way of peace they know not.	Their feet are swift to shed blood: Destruction and misery are in their ways: and the way of peace have they not known.	Their feet run to evil, and they make haste to shed innocent blood … wasting and destruction are in their paths. The way of peace they know not.
Psa. 36:1.	Rom. 3:18.	Psa. 36:1.
There is no fear of God before his eyes.	There is no fear of God before their eyes.	There is no fear of God before his eyes.

Gen. 15:6.	Rom. 4:3.	Gen. 15:6.
Abram believed God, and it was counted to him for righteousness.	For what saith the scripture? Abraham believed God, and it was counted unto him for righteousness.	He believed in the Lord; and He counted it to him for righteousness.
Psa. 32:1-2.	Rom. 4:6-8.	Psa. 32:1-2.
Blessed are they whose transgressions are forgiven, and whose sins are covered. Blessed is the man to whom the Lord will not impute sin.	Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven, and whose sins are covered. Blessed is the man to whom the Lord will not impute sin.	Blessed is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is covered. Blessed is the man unto whom the Lord imputeth not iniquity.
Gen. 17:5.	Rom. 4:17.	Gen. 17:5.
I have made thee a father of many nations.	As it is written, I have made thee a father of many nations.	A father of many nations have I made thee.
Gen. 15:5.	Rom. 4:18.	Gen. 15:5.
Thus shall thy seed be.	According to that which was spoken, So shall thy seed be.	So shall thy seed be.
Ex. 20:17.	Rom. 7:7.	Ex. 20:17.
Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s wife, etc.	The law had said, Thou shalt not covet.	Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s house, etc.
Psa. 44:22.	Rom. 8:36.	Psa. 44:22.
For Thy sake we are killed all the day long; we are counted as sheep for slaughter.	As it is written, For Thy sake we are killed all the day long; we are accounted as sheep for the slaughter.	For Thy sake are we killed all the day long; we are counted as sheep for the slaughter.
Gen. 21:12.	Rom. 9:7.	Gen. 21:12.
In Isaac shall thy seed be called.	In Isaac shall thy seed be called.	In Isaac shall thy seed be called.
Gen. 18:10.	Rom. 9:9.	Gen. 18:10.
I will return and come to thee according to this period seasonably, and Sarrha thy wife shall have a son.	This is the word of promise, At this time will I come, and Sara shall have a son.	I will certainly return unto thee according to the time of life; and, lo, Sarah thy wife shall have a son.
Gen. 25:23.	Rom. 9:12.	Gen. 25:23.
The elder shall serve the younger.	It was said unto her, The elder shall serve the younger.	The elder shall serve the younger.
Mal. 1:2-3.	Rom. 9:13.	Mal. 1:2-3.
I loved Jacob, and hated Esau.	As it is written, Jacob have I loved, but Esau have I hated.	I loved Jacob, and I hated Esau.
Ex. 33:19.	Rom. 9:15.	Ex. 33:19.
I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and will have pity on whom I will have pity.	He saith to Moses, I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion.	And will be gracious to whom I will be gracious, and will shew mercy on whom I will shew mercy.
Ex. 9:16.	Rom. 9:17.	Ex. 9:16.
For this purpose hast thou been preserved, that I might display in thee My strength, and that My name might be published in all the earth.	The scripture saith unto Pharaoh, Even for this same purpose have I raised thee up, that I might shew My power in thee, and that My name might be declared throughout all the earth.	In very deed for this cause have I raised thee up, for to shew in thee My power; and that My name may be declared throughout all the earth.
Hos. 2:23.	Rom. 9:25.	Hos. 2:23.
And will love her that was not loved, and will say to that which was not My people, Thou art My people.	As he saith also in Osee, I will call them My people, which were not My people; and her beloved, which was not beloved.	I will have mercy upon her that had not obtained mercy; and I will say to them which were not My people, Thou art My people; and they shall say, Thou art my God.

Hos. 1:10.	Rom. 9:26.	Hos. 1:10.
It shall come to pass, that in the place where it was said to them, Ye are not My people, even they shall be called the sons of the living God.	It shall come to pass, that in the place where it was said unto them, Ye are not My people; there shall they be called the children of the living God.	It shall come to pass, that in the place where it was said unto them, Ye are not My people, there it shall be said unto them, Ye are the sons of the living God.
Isa. 10:22-23.	Rom. 9:27-28.	Isa. 10:22-23.
Though the people of Israel be as the sand of the sea, a remnant of them shall be saved. He will finish the work, and cut it short in righteousness: because the Lord will make a short work in all the world.	Esaias also crieth concerning Israel, Though the number of the children of Israel be as the sand of the sea, a remnant shall be saved: for He will finish the work, and cut it short in righteousness: because a short work will the Lord make upon the earth.	Though Thy people Israel be as the sand of the sea, yet a remnant of them shall return: the consumption decreed shall overflow with righteousness. For the Lord God of hosts shall make a consumption, even determined, in the midst of all the land.
Isa. 1:9.	Rom. 9:29.	Isa. 1:9.
If the Lord of Sabaoth had not left us a seed, we should have been as Sodoma, and we should have been made like to Gomorrha.	As Esaias said before, Except the Lord of Sabaoth had left us a seed, we had been as Sodoma, and been made like unto Gomorrha.	Except the Lord of hosts had left unto us a very small remnant, we should have been as Sodom, and we should have been like unto Gomorrah.
Isa. 8:14 and 28:16.	Rom. 9:33.	Isa. 8:14 and 28:16.
Ye shall not come against Him as against a stumbling-stone, neither as against the falling of a rock. … Behold, I lay for the foundations of Sion a costly stone, a choice, a corner-stone, a precious stone, for its foundations; and he that believes on Him shall by no means be ashamed.	As it is written, Behold, I lay in Sion a stumblingstone and rock of offence: and whosoever believeth on Him shall not be ashamed.	He shall be for a sanctuary; but for a stone of stumbling and for a rock of offence. … Behold, I lay in Zion for a foundation a stone, a tried stone, a precious corner stone, a sure foundation: he that believeth shall not make haste.
Lev. 18:5.	Rom. 10:5.	Lev. 18:5.
Which if a man do, he shall live in them.	Moses describeth … That the man which doeth those things shall live by them.	Which if a man do, he shall live in them.
Deut. 30:12-24.	Rom. 10:6-8.	Deut. 30:12-14.
It is not in heaven above, as if there were one saying, Who shall go up for us into heaven, and shall take it for us, and we will hear and do it? Neither is it beyond the sea, saying, Who will go over for us to the other side of the sea, and take it for us, and make it audible to us, and we will do it? The word is very near thee, in thy mouth, and in thine heart, and in thine hands to do it.	But the righteousness which is of faith speaketh on this wise, Say not in thine heart, Who shall ascend into heaven? (that is, to bring Christ down from above:) Or, Who shall descend into the deep? (that is, to bring up Christ again from the dead.) But what saith it? The word is nigh thee, even in thy mouth, and in thy heart.	It is not in heaven, that thou shouldest say, Who shall go up for us to heaven, and bring it unto us, that we may hear it, and do it? Neither is it beyond the sea, that thou shouldest say, Who shall go over the sea for us, and bring it unto us, that we may hear it, and do it? But the word is very nigh unto thee, in thy mouth, and in thy heart, that thou mayest do it.
	Rom. 10:11. See ch. 9:33.
Joel 2:32.	Rom. 10:13.	Joel 2:32.
It shall come to pass that whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be saved.	Whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved.	It shall come to pass, that whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord shall be delivered.
Isa. 52:7.	Rom. 10:15.	Isa. 52:7.
A season of beauty upon the mountains, as the feet of one preaching glad tidings of peace, as one preaching good news.	As it is written, How beautiful are the feet of them that preach the gospel of peace, and bring glad tidings of good things!	How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace; that bringeth good tidings of good.
	Rom. 10:16. See John 12:38.
Psa. 19:4.	Rom. 10:18.	Psa. 19:4.
Their voice is gone out into all the earth, and their words to the ends of the world.	Yes verily, Their sound went into all the earth, and their words unto the ends of the world.	Their line is gone out through all the earth, and their words to the end of the world.
Deut. 32:21.	Rom. 10:19.	Deut. 32:21.
I will provoke them to jealousy with them that are no nation, I will anger them with a nation void of understanding.	Moses saith, I will provoke you to jealousy by them that are no people, and by a foolish nation I will anger you.	I will move them to jealousy with those which are not a people; I will provoke them to anger with a foolish nation.

Isa. 65:1-2.	Rom. 10:20-21.	Isa. 65:1-2.
I became manifest to them that asked not for Me; I was found of them that sought Me not: … I have stretched forth My hands all day to a disobedient and gainsaying people.	Esaias is very bold, and saith, I was found of them that sought Me not; I was made manifest unto them that asked not after Me. But to Israel he saith, All day long I have stretched forth My hands unto a disobedient and gainsaying people.	I am sought of them that asked not for Me; I am found of them that sought Me not. … I have spread out My hands all the day unto a rebellious people.
3 Kings 19:14.	Rom. 11:2-3.	1 Kings 19:14.
They have overthrown Thine altars, and have slain Thy prophets with the sword! and I am left entirely alone, and they seek my life to take it.	The scripture saith … Lord, they have killed Thy prophets, and digged down Thine altars; and I am left alone, and they seek my life.	Israel have … thrown down Thine altars, and slain Thy prophets with the sword; and I, even I only, am left; and they seek my life, to take it away.
3 Kings 19:18.	Rom. 11:4.	1 Kings 19:18.
Thou shalt leave in Israel seven thousand men, all the knees which had not bowed themselves to Baal.	What saith the answer of God unto him? I have reserved to Myself seven thousand men, who have not bowed the knee to the image of Baal.	I have left Me seven thousand in Israel, all the knees which have not bowed unto Baal.
Isa. 29:10.	Rom. 11:8.	Isa. 29:10.
The Lord has made you to drink a spirit of deep sleep; and He shall close their eyes.	As it is written, God hath given them the spirit of slumber, eyes that they should not see, and ears that they should not hear.	The Lord hath poured out upon you the spirit of deep sleep, and hath closed your eyes.
Psa. 69:22-23.	Rom. 11:9-10.	Psa. 69:22-23.
Let their table before them be for a snare, and for a recompence, and for a stumbling-block. Let their eyes be darkened that they should not see; and bow down their back continually.	David saith, Let their table be made a snare, and a trap, and a stumblingblock, and a recompence unto them: Let their eyes be darkened, that they may not see, and bow down their back alway.	Let their table become a snare before them: and that which should have been for their welfare, let it become a trap. Let their eyes be darkened, that they see not; and make their loins continually to shake.
Isa. 59:20-21.	Rom. 11:26-27.	Isa. 59:20-21.
The deliverer shall come for Sion’s sake, and shall turn away ungodliness from Jacob. And this shall be My covenant with them.	As it is written, There shall come out of Sion the Deliverer, and shall turn away ungodliness from Jacob: for this is My covenant unto them, when I shall take away their sins.	The Redeemer shall come to Zion, and unto them that turn from transgression in Jacob, saith the Lord. As for Me, this is My covenant with them.
Isa. 40:13.	Rom. 11:34.	Isa. 40:13.
Who has known the mind of the Lord? and who has been His counsellor, to instruct Him?	Who hath known the mind of the Lord? or who hath been His counseller?	Who hath directed the Spirit of the Lord, or being His counsellor hath taught Him?
	Rom. 12:19. See Heb. 10:30.
Prov. 25:21-22.	Rom. 12:20.	Prov. 25:21-22.
If thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink; for so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head.	Therefore if thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink: for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head.	If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; and if he be thirsty, give him water to drink: for thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head.
	Rom. 13:9. See Matt. 19:18-19.
Isa. 45:23.	Rom. 14:11.	Isa. 45:23.
By Myself I swear, righteousness shall surely proceed out of My mouth; My words shall not be frustrated; that to Me every knee shall bend, and every tongue shall swear by God.	For it is written, As I live, saith the Lord, every knee shall bow to Me, and every tongue shall confess to God.	I have sworn by Myself, the word is gone out of My mouth in righteousness, and shall not return, That unto Me every knee shall bow, every tongue shall swear.
Psa. 69:9.	Rom. 15:3.	Psa. 69:9.
The reproaches of them that reproached Thee are fallen upon Me.	As it is written, The reproaches of them that reproached Thee fell on Me.	The reproaches of them that reproached Thee are fallen upon Me.
Psa. 18:49.	Rom. 15:9.	Psa. 18:49.
Therefore will I confess to Thee, O Lord, among the Gentiles, and sing to Thy name.	As it is written, For this cause I will confess to Thee among the Gentiles, and sing unto Thy name.	Therefore will I give thanks unto Thee, O Lord, among the heathen, and sing praises unto Thy name.
Deut. 32:43.	Rom. 15:10.	Deut. 32:43.
Rejoice ye Gentiles, with His people.	Again he saith, Rejoice, ye Gentiles, with His people.	Rejoice, O ye nations, with His people.
Psa. 117:1.	Rom. 15:11.	Psa. 117:1.
Praise the Lord, all ye nations: praise Him, all ye peoples.	And again, Praise the Lord, all ye Gentiles; and laud Him, all ye people.	O praise the Lord, all ye nations: praise Him, all ye people.

Isa. 11:10.	Rom. 15:12.	Isa. 11:10.
In that day there shall be a root of Jesse, and He that shall arise to rule over the Gentiles; in Him shall the Gentiles trust.	Esaias saith, There shall be a root of Jesse, and He that shall rise to reign over the Gentiles; in Him shall the Gentiles trust.	In that day there shall be a root of Jesse, which shall stand for an ensign of the people; to it shall the Gentiles seek.
Isa. 52:15.	Rom. 15:21.	Isa. 52:15.
They to whom no report was brought concerning Him, shall see; and they who have not heard, shall consider.	As it is written, To whom He was not spoken of, they shall see: and they that have not heard shall understand.	That which had not been told them shall they see; and that which they had not heard shall they consider.
Isa. 29:14.	1 Cor. 1:19.	Isa. 29:14.
I will destroy the wisdom of the wise, and will hide the understanding of the prudent.	For it is written, I will destroy the wisdom of the wise, and will bring to nothing the understanding of the prudent.	The wisdom of their wise men shall perish, and the understanding of their prudent men shall be hid.
Jer. 9:24.	1 Cor. 1:31.	Jer. 9:24.
Let him that boasts boast in this, the understanding and knowing that I am the Lord that exercise mercy, and judgment, and righteousness, upon the earth.	As it is written, He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord.	Let him that glorieth glory in this, that he understandeth and knoweth Me, that I am the Lord which exercise lovingkindness, judgment, and righteousness, in the earth.
Isa. 64:4.	1 Cor. 2:9.	Isa. 64:4.
From of old we have not heard, neither have our eyes seen a God beside Thee, and Thy works which Thou wilt perform to them that wait for mercy.	As it is written, Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love Him.	Since the beginning of the world men have not heard, nor perceived by the ear, neither hath the eye seen, O God, beside Thee, what He hath prepared for him that waiteth for Him.
	1 Cor. 2:16. See Rom. 11:34.
Job 5:13.	1 Cor. 3:19.	Job 5:13.
Who takes the wise in their wisdom.	It is written, He taketh the wise in their own craftiness.	He taketh the wise in their own craftiness.
Psa. 94:11.	1 Cor. 3:20.	Psa. 94:11.
The Lord knows the thoughts of men, that they are vain.	And again, The Lord knoweth the thoughts of the wise, that they are vain.	The Lord knoweth the thoughts of man, that they are vanity.
	1 Cor. 6:16. See Matt. 19:5.
Deut. 25:4.	1 Cor. 9:9.	Deut. 25:4.
Thou shalt not muzzle the ox that treads out the corn.	It is written in the law of Moses, Thou shalt not muzzle the mouth of the ox that treadeth out the corn.	Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn.
Ex. 32:6.	1 Cor. 10:7.	Ex. 32:6.
The people sat down to eat and drink, and rose up to play.	As it is written, The people sat down to eat and drink, and rose up to play.	The people sat down to eat and to drink, and rose up to play.
Deut. 32:17.	1 Cor. 10:20.	Deut. 32:17.
They sacrificed to devils, and not to God.	The things which the Gentiles sacrifice, they sacrifice to devils, and not to God.	They sacrificed unto devils, not to God.
Psa. 24:1.	1 Cor. 10:26.	Psa. 24:1.
The earth is the Lord’s and the fullness thereof.	The earth is the Lord’s, and the fulness thereof.	The earth is the Lord’s, and the fulness thereof.
Isa. 28:11-12.	1 Cor. 14:21.	Isa. 28:11-12.
By reason of the contemptuous words of the lips, by means of another language: for they shall speak to this people … but they would not hear.	In the law it is written, With men of other tongues and other lips will I speak unto this people; and yet for all that will they not hear Me, saith the Lord.	With stammering lips and another tongue will He speak to this people. … yet they would not hear.
	1 Cor. 15:25. See Matt. 22:44.
Psa. 8:6.	1 Cor. 15:27.	Psa. 8:6.
Thou hast put all things under His feet.	He hath put all things under His feet.	Thou hast put all things under His feet.
Isa. 22:13.	1 Cor. 15:32.	Isa. 22:13.
Let us eat and drink; for to-morrow we die.	Let us eat and drink; for to morrow we die.	Let us eat and drink; for to morrow we shall die.
Gen. 2:7.	1 Cor. 15:45.	Gen. 2:7.
The man became a living soul.	It is written, The first man Adam was made a living soul.	Man became a living soul.
Isa. 25:8.	1 Cor. 15:54.	Isa. 25:8.
Death has prevailed and swallowed men up.	Then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written, Death is swallowed up in victory.	He will swallow up death in victory.
Hos. 13:14.	1 Cor. 15:55.	Hos. 13:14.
Where is thy penalty, O death? O hades, where is thy sting?	O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory?	O death, I will be thy plagues; O grave, I will be thy destruction.
Psa. 116:10.	2 Cor. 4:13.	Psa. 116:10.
I believed, wherefore I have spoken.	As it is written, I believed, and therefore have I spoken.	I believed, therefore have I spoken.

Isa. 49:8.	2 Cor. 6:2.	Isa. 49:8.
In an acceptable time have I heard thee, and in a day of salvation have I succoured thee.	He saith, I have heard thee in a time accepted, and in the day of salvation have I succoured thee.	In an acceptable time have I heard thee, and in a day of salvation have I helped thee.
Lev. 26:11-12.	2 Cor. 6:16.	Lev. 26:11-12.
I will set My tabernacle among you … and I will walk among you, and be your God, and ye shall be My people.	As God hath said, I will dwell in them, and walk in them; and I will be their God, and they shall be My people.	I will set My tabernacle among you. … and I will walk among you, and will be your God, and ye shall be My people.
Is. 52:11-12 & 2 Kings 7:14.	2 Cor. 6:17-18.	Isa. 52:11-12 & 2 Sam. 7:14.
Depart ye, depart, go out from thence, and touch not the unclean thing; go ye out from the midst of her. … for the Lord shall go first in advance of you. … I will be to him a father, and he shall be to Me a son.	Wherefore come out from among them, and be ye separate, saith the Lord, and touch not the unclean thing; and I will receive you, and will be a Father unto you, and ye shall be My sons and daughters, saith the Lord Almighty.	Depart ye, depart ye, go ye out from thence, touch no unclean thing; go ye out of the midst of her. … for the Lord will go before you. … I will be his father, and he shall be My son.

Ex. 16:18.	2 Cor. 8:15.	Ex. 16:18.
He that had gathered much had nothing over, and he that had gathered less had no lack.	As it is written, He that had gathered much had nothing over; and he that had gathered little had no lack.	He that gathered much had nothing over, and he that gathered little had no lack.
Psa. 112:9.	2 Cor. 9:9.	Psa. 112:9.
He has dispersed abroad; He has given to the poor; His righteousness endures for evermore.	As it is written, He hath dispersed abroad; He hath given to the poor: His righteousness remaineth for ever.	He hath dispersed, He hath given to the poor; His righteousness endureth forever.
	2 Cor. 13:1. See John 8:17.
Gen. 12:3.	Gal. 3:8.	Gen. 12:3.
In thee shall all the tribes of the earth be blessed.	The scripture … In thee shall all nations be blessed.	In thee shall all families of the earth be blessed.
Deut. 27:26.	Gal. 3:10.	Deut. 27:26.
Cursed is every man that continues not in all the words of this law to do them.	It is written, Cursed is every one that continueth not in all things which are written in the book of the law to do them.	Cursed be he that confirmeth not all the words of this law to do them.
	Gal. 3:11. See Heb. 10:38.
	Gal. 3:12. See Rom. 10:5.
Deut. 21:23.	Gal. 3:13.	Deut. 21:23.
Every one that is hanged on a tree is cursed of God.	It is written, Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree.	He that is hanged is accursed of God.
	Gal. 3:16. See Acts 3:25.
Isa. 54:1.	Gal. 4:27.	Isa. 54:1
Rejoice, thou barren that bearest not; break forth and cry, thou that dost not travail: for more are the children of the desolate than of her that has a husband.	It is written, Rejoice, thou barren that bearest not; break forth and cry, thou that travailest not: for the desolate hath many more children than she which hath an husband.	Sing, O barren, thou that didst not bear; break forth into singing, and cry aloud, thou that didst not travail with child: for more are the children of the desolate than the children of the married wife.
Gen. 21:10.	Gal. 4:30.	Gen. 21:10.
Cast out this bondwoman and her son, for the son of this bondwoman shall not inherit with my son Isaac.	What saith the scripture? Cast out the bondwoman and her son: for the son of the bondwoman shall not be heir with the son of the freewoman.	Cast out this bondwoman and her son: for the son of this bondwoman shall not be heir with my son, even with Isaac.
	Gal. 5:14. See Matt. 19:19.
Psa. 68:18.	Eph. 4:8.	Psa. 68:18.
Thou art gone up on high, Thou hast led captivity captive, Thou hast received gifts for man.	Wherefore He saith, When He ascended up on high, He led captivity captive, and gave gifts unto men.	Thou hast ascended on high, Thou hast led captivity captive: Thou hast received gifts for men.
	Eph. 5:14.
	Wherefore He saith, Awake thou that sleepest, and arise from the dead, and Christ shall give thee light.
		[see Isa. 60:1]
	Eph. 5:31. See Matt. 19:5.
Ex. 20:12.	Eph. 6:2-3.	Ex. 20:12.
Honour thy father and thy mother, that it may be well with thee, and that thou mayest live long on the good land.	Honour thy father and mother; (which is the first commandment with promise;) that it may be well with thee, and thou mayest live long on the earth.	Honour thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the land.
	1 Tim. 5:18. See 1 Cor. 9:9.
Num. 16:5.	2 Tim. 2:19.	Num. 16:5.
God has visited and known those that are His.	The Lord knoweth them that are His.	The Lord will shew who are His.
	Heb. 1:5. See Acts 13:33.
2 Kings 7:14.	Heb. 1:5.	2 Sam. 7:14.
I will be to him a father, and he shall be to me a son.	Again, I will be to him a Father, and he shall be to me a Son.	I will be his father, and he shall be My son.
Psa. 97:7.	Heb. 1:6.	Psa. 97:7.
Worship Him, all ye His angels.	He saith, And let all the angels of God worship Him.	Worship Him, all ye gods.
Psa. 104:4.	Heb. 1:7.	Psa. 104:4.
Who makes His angels spirits, and His ministers a flaming fire.	He saith, Who maketh His angels spirits, and His ministers a flame of fire.	Who maketh His angels spirits; His ministers a flaming fire.
Psa. 45:6-7.	Heb. 1:8-9.	Psa. 45:6-7.
Thy throne, O God, is for ever and ever: the sceptre of Thy kingdom is a sceptre of righteousness. Thou hast loved righteousness, and hated iniquity: therefore God, Thy God, has anointed Thee with the oil of gladness beyond Thy fellows.	Unto the Son he saith, Thy throne, O God, is for ever and ever: a sceptre of righteousness is the sceptre of Thy kingdom. Thou hast loved righteousness, and hated iniquity; therefore God, even Thy God, hath anointed Thee with the oil of gladness above Thy fellows.	Thy throne, O God, is for ever and ever: the sceptre of Thy kingdom is a right sceptre. Thou lovest righteousness, and hatest wickedness: therefore God, Thy God, hath anointed Thee with the oil of gladness above Thy fellows.
Psa. 102:25-27.	Heb. 1:10-12.	Psa. 102:25-27.
In the beginning Thou, O Lord, didst lay the foundation of the earth; and the heavens are the works of Thine hands. They shall perish, but Thou remainest: and they all shall wax old as a garment; and as a vesture shalt Thou fold them, and they shall be changed. But Thou art the same, and Thy years shall not fail.	Thou, Lord, in the beginning hast laid the foundation of the earth; and the heavens are the works of Thine hands: they shall perish; but Thou remainest; and they all shall wax old as doth a garment; and as a vesture shalt Thou fold them up, and they shall be changed: but Thou art the same, and Thy years shall not fail.	Of old hast Thou laid the foundation of the earth: and the heavens are the work of Thy hands. They shall perish, but Thou shalt endure: yea, all of them shall wax old like a garment; as a vesture shalt Thou change them, and they shall be changed: but Thou art the same, and Thy years shall have no end.
	Heb. 1:13. See Matt. 22:44.
Psa. 8:4-6.	Heb. 2:6-8.	Psa. 8:4-6.
What is man, that Thou art mindful of him? or the son of man, that thou visitest him? Thou madest him a little less than angels, Thou hast crowned him with glory	One in a certain place testified, saying, What is man, that thou art mindful of him? or the son of man, that thou visitest him? Thou madest	What is man, that Thou art mindful of him? and the son of man, that Thou visitest him? For Thou hast made him a little lower than the angels, and hast crowned him with glory and honour.
and honour; and Thou hast set him over the	him a little lower than the angels; Thou	Thou madest him to have dominion over the works of Thy hands; Thou hast put all things under his feet.
works of Thy hands: Thou hast put all things under his feet.	crownedst him with glory and honour, and didst set him over the works of Thy hands: Thou hast put all things in subjection under his feet.
Psa. 22:22.	Heb. 2:12.	Psa. 22:22.
I will declare Thy name to my brethren: in the midst of the church will I sing praise to Thee.	Saying, I will declare Thy name unto my brethren, in the midst of the church will I sing praise unto Thee.	I will declare Thy name unto my brethren: in the midst of the congregation will I praise Thee.
Isa. 8:17-18.	Heb. 2:13.	Isa. 8:17-18.
I will trust in Him. Behold I and the children which God has given me.	Again, I will put my trust in Him. And again, Behold I and the children which God hath given me.	I will look for Him. Behold, I and the children whom the Lord hath given me.
Psa. 95:8-11.	Heb. 3:7-11,15; 4:3,7.	Psa. 95:7-11.
To-day, if ye will hear His voice, harden not your hearts, as in the provocation, according to the day of irritation in the wilderness: where your fathers tempted Me, proved Me, and saw My works. Forty years was I grieved with this generation, and said, They do always err in their heart, and they have not known My ways. So I sware in My wrath, They shall not enter into My rest.	As the Holy Ghost saith, To day if ye will hear His voice, harden not your hearts, as in the provocation, in the day of temptation in the wilderness: when your fathers tempted Me, proved Me, and saw My works forty years. Wherefore I was grieved with that generation, and said, They do alway err in their heart; and they have not known My ways. So I sware in my wrath, They shall not enter into my rest.	To day, if ye will hear His voice, harden not your heart, as in the provocation, and as in the day of temptation in the wilderness: when your fathers tempted Me, proved Me, and saw My work. Forty years long was I grieved with this generation, and said, It is a people that do err in their heart, and they have not known My ways: unto whom I sware in My wrath that they should not enter into My rest.
Gen. 2:3.	Heb. 4:4.	Gen. 2:3.
God blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, because in it He ceased from all His works which God began to do.	He spake … And God did rest the seventh day from all His works.	God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it He had rested from all His work which God created and made.
	Heb. 5:5. See Acts 13:33.
	Heb. 5:6. See ch. 7:17.
Gen. 22:15-16.	Heb. 6:13-14.	Gen. 22:16-17.
I have sworn by Myself, says the Lord … Surely blessing I will bless thee, and multiplying I will multiply thy seed.	God … sware by Himself, saying, Surely blessing I will bless thee, and multiplying I will multiply thee.	By Myself have I sworn, saith the Lord … That in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will multiply thy seed.
Psa. 110:4.	Heb. 7:17,21.	Psa. 110:4.
The Lord sware, and will not repent, Thou art a priest for ever, after the order of Melchisedec.	Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchisedec.	The Lord hath sworn, and will not repent, Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchizedek.
	The Lord sware and will not repent, Thou art a priest for ever, after the order of Melchisedec.
Ex. 25:40.	Heb. 8:5.	Ex. 25:40.
See, thou shalt make them according to the pattern shewed thee in the mount.	See, saith he, that thou make all things according to the pattern shewed to thee in the mount.	Look that thou make them after their pattern, which was shewed thee in the mount.
Jer. 38:31-34	Heb. 8:8-12.	Jer. 31:31-34.
Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Juda: not according to the covenant which I made with their fathers in the day when I took hold of their hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they abode not in My covenant, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord. For this is My covenant which I will make with the house of Israel; after those days, saith the Lord, I will surely put My laws into their mind, and write them on their hearts; and I will be to them a God, and they shall be to Me a people. And they shall not at all teach everyone his fellow citizen, and every one his brother, saying, Know the Lord: for all shall know Me, from the least of them to the greatest of them: for I will be merciful to their iniquities, and their sins I will remember no more.	He saith, Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, when I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah: not according to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the day when I took them by the hand to lead them out of the land of Egypt; because they continued not in My covenant, and I regarded them not, saith the Lord. For this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after those days, saith the Lord; I will put My laws into their mind, and write them in their hearts: and I will be to them a God, and they shall be to Me a people: and they shall not teach every man his neighbor, and every man his brother, saying, Know the Lord: for all shall know Me, from the least to the greatest. For I will be merciful to their unrighteousness, and their sins and their iniquities will I remember no more.	Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah: not according to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; which My covenant they brake, although I was an husband unto them, saith the Lord: but this shall be the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel; After those days, saith the Lord, I will put My law in their inward parts, and write it in their hearts; and will be their God, and they shall be My people. And they shall teach no more every man his neighbor, and every man his brother, saying, Know the Lord: for they shall all know Me, from the least of them unto the greatest of them, saith the Lord: for I will forgive their iniquity, and I will remember their sin no more.
Ex. 24:8.	Heb. 9:20.	Ex. 24:8.
Behold the blood of the covenant, which the Lord has made with you.	This is the blood of the testament which God hath enjoined unto you.	Behold the blood of the covenant, which the Lord hath made with you.
Psa. 40:6-8.	Heb. 10:5-9.	Psa. 40:6-8.
Sacrifice and offering Thou wouldest not; but a body hast thou prepared Me: whole-burnt-offering and sacrifice for sin Thou didst not require. Then I said, Behold, I come: in the volume of the book it is written concerning Me, I desired to do Thy will, O my God, and Thy law in the midst of Mine heart.	He saith, Sacrifice and offering Thou wouldest not, but a body hast Thou prepared me: in burnt offerings and sacrifices for sin Thou hast had no pleasure. Then said I, Lo, I come (in the volume of the book it is written of Me,) to do Thy will, O God. Above when He said, Sacrifice and offering and burnt offerings and offering for sin thou wouldest not, neither hadst pleasure therein; which are offered by the law; then said He, Lo, I come to do Thy will, O God.	Sacrifice and offering Thou didst not desire; mine ears hast Thou opened: burnt offering and sin offering hast Thou not required. Then said I, Lo, I come: in the volume of the book it is written of Me, I delight to do Thy will, O My God: yea, Thy law is within My heart.
	Heb. 10:16-17. See ch. 8:8-12.
Deut. 32:35-36.	Heb. 10:30.	Deut. 32:35-36.
In the day of vengeance I will recompense. … For the Lord shall judge His people.	Vengeance belongeth unto Me, I will recompense, saith the Lord. And again, The Lord shall judge His people.	To Me belongeth vengeance, and recompense. … For the Lord shall judge His people.
Hab. 2:3-4.	Heb. 10:37-38.	Hab. 2:3-4.
He will surely come, and will not tarry. If he should draw back, my soul has no pleasure in him: but the just shall live by my faith.	He that shall come will come, and will not tarry. Now the just shall live by faith: but if any man draw back, My soul shall have no pleasure in him.	Because it will surely come, it will not tarry. Behold, his soul which is lifted up is not upright in him: but the just shall live by his faith.
Gen. 47:31.	Heb. 11:21.	Gen. 47:31.
Israel did reverence, leaning on the top of his staff.	Jacob … worshipped, leaning upon the top of his staff.	Israel bowed himself upon the bed’s head.
Prov. 3:11-12.	Heb. 12:5-6.	Prov. 3:11-12.
My son, despise not the chastening of the Lord; nor faint when thou art rebuked of Him: for whom the Lord loves, He rebukes, and scourges every son whom He receives.	The exhortation which speaketh unto you as unto children, My son, despise not thou the chastening of the Lord, nor faint when thou art rebuked of Him: for whom the Lord loveth He chasteneth, and scourgeth every son whom He receiveth.	My son, despise not the chastening of the Lord; neither be weary of His correction: for whom the Lord loveth He correcteth; even as a father the son in whom he delighteth.
Ex. 19:12-13.	Heb. 12:20.	Ex. 19:12-13.
Every one that touches the mountain shall surely die. … for he shall be stoned with stones or shot through with a dart, whether beast or whether man, it shall not live.	Which was commanded, And if so much as a beast touch the mountain, it shall be stoned, or thrust through with a dart.	Whosoever toucheth the mount shall be surely put to death … he shall surely be stoned, or shot through; whether it be beast or man, it shall not live.
Deut. 9:19.	Heb. 12:21.	Deut. 9:19.
I was greatly terrified because of the wrath and anger.	Moses said, I exceedingly fear and quake.	I was afraid of the anger and hot displeasure, wherewith the Lord was wroth against you.
Hag. 2:7.	Heb. 12:26.	Hag. 2:6.
Yet once I will shake the heaven, and the earth.	Saying, Yet once more I shake not the earth only, but also heaven.	Yet once, it is a little while, and I will shake the heavens, and the earth.
Josh. 1:5.	Heb. 13:5.	Josh. 1:5.
I will not fail thee, or neglect thee.	He hath said, I will never leave thee, nor forsake thee.	I will not fail thee, nor forsake thee.
Psa. 118:6.	Heb. 13:6.	Psa. 118:6.
The Lord is my helper; and I will not fear what man shall do to me.	The Lord is my helper, and I will not fear what man shall do unto me.	The Lord is on my side; I will not fear: what can man do unto me?
	James 2:8,11. See Matt. 19:18-19.
	James 2:23. See Rom. 4:3.
Prov. 3:34.	James 4:6.	Prov. 3:34.
The Lord resists the proud; but He gives grace to the humble.	He saith, God resisteth the proud, but giveth grace unto the humble.	Surely He scorneth the scorners: but He giveth grace unto the lowly.
Lev. 11:44.	1 Pet. 1:16.	Lev. 11:44.
Ye shall be holy, because I the Lord your God am holy.	It is written, Be ye holy; for I am holy.	Ye shall be holy; for I am holy.
Isa. 40:6-8.	1 Pet. 1:24-25.	Isa. 40:6-8.
All flesh is grass, and all the glory of man as the flower of grass: The grass withers, and the flower fades: but the word of our God abides for ever.	All flesh is as grass, and all the glory of man as the flower of grass. The grass withereth, and the flower thereof falleth away: but the word of the Lord endureth for ever.	All flesh is grass, and all the goodliness thereof is as the flower of the field: the grass withereth, the flower fadeth. … but the word of our God shall stand for ever.
	1 Pet. 2:6. See Rom. 9:33.
	1 Peter 2:7. See Matt. 21:42.
Ex. 19:6.	1 Pet. 2:9.	Ex. 19:6.
Ye shall be to me a royal priesthood and a holy nation.	Ye are … a royal priesthood, an holy nation.	Ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests, and an holy nation.
Isa. 53:9.	1 Pet. 2:22.	Isa. 53:9.
He practised no iniquity, nor craft with His mouth.	Who did no sin, neither was guile found in His mouth.	He had done no violence, neither was any deceit in His mouth.
Isa. 53:5.	1 Pet. 2:24.	Isa. 53:5.
By His bruises we were healed.	By whose stripes ye were healed.	With His stripes we are healed.
Psa. 34:12-16.	1 Pet. 3:10-12.	Psa. 34:12-26.
What man is there that desires life, loving to see good days? Keep thy tongue from evil, and thy lips from speaking guile. Turn away from evil, and do good; seek peace and pursue it. The eyes of the Lord are over the righteous, and His ears are open to their prayer: but the face of the Lord is against them that do evil.	He that will love life, and see good days, let him refrain his tongue from evil, and his lips that they speak no guile: let him eschew evil, and do good; let him seek peace, and ensue it. For the eyes of the Lord are over the righteous, and His ears are open unto their prayers: but the face of the Lord is against them that do evil.	What man is he that desireth life, and loveth many days, that he may see good? Keep thy tongue from evil, and thy lips from speaking guile. Depart from evil, and do good; seek peace, and pursue it. The eyes of the Lord are upon the righteous, and His ears are open unto their cry. The face of the Lord is against them that do evil.
Isa. 8:12-13.	1 Pet. 3:14-15.	Isa. 8:12-13.
Fear not ye their fear, neither be dismayed. Sanctify ye the Lord Himself.	Be not afraid of their terror, neither be troubled; but sanctify the Lord God in your hearts.	Neither fear ye their fear, nor be afraid. Sanctify the Lord of hosts Himself.
Prov. 10:12.	1 Peter 4:8.	Prov. 10:12.
Affection covers all that do not love strife.	For charity shall cover the multitude of sins.	Love covereth all sins.
Prov. 26:11.	2 Peter 2:22.	Prov. 26:11.
As when a dog goes to his own vomit.	The dog is turned to his own vomit again.	As a dog returneth to his vomit.
Psa. 2:9.	Rev. 2:27.	Psa. 2:9.
Thou shalt rule them with a rod of iron; Thou shalt dash them in pieces as a potter’s vessel.	He shall rule them with a rod of iron; as the vessels of a potter shall they be broken to shivers.	Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron; Thou shalt dash them in pieces like a potter’s vessel.

Parables

The word ‘parable’ is from the Greek word Parabole, and this is derived from Paraballo, which signifies ‘to place beside,’ ‘to place one thing beside another,’ as in making a comparison, and hence a ‘simile,’ ‘similitude,’ ‘parable.’

A short narrative was related, which had a hidden meaning in its various details. When its interpretation was understood it was calculated to remain fixed on the memory more than if only the truths contained in the interpretation had been given.

The disciples asked the Lord why He spoke to the people in parables. He replied, “Because it is given unto you to know the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven, but to them it is not given” (Matt. 13:11), though some of the parables were so plain and pointed that the chief priests and Pharisees perceived that He spake of them (Matt. 21:45). The ‘gospel’ of the kingdom was for them all, but not the ‘mysteries’ of the kingdom.

It has often been remarked that a parable and its interpretation ‘do not run on all fours,’ by which is meant that while the general meaning of a parable may be plain, all its details cannot be found to correspond with the interpretation. In attempting to enforce such correspondence evil doctrine has sometimes been the result.

None of the parables are found in the Gospel by John, and he only once uses the term “Kingdom of God” (chapter 3:3). This is unquestionably in keeping with the character of his Gospel; but in chapter 10:6, we read “This parable spake Jesus,” when He proceeds to refer to Himself as the Good Shepherd. The word in this passage is not the same as is translated ‘parable’ in the other Gospels, and would be better translated ‘allegory.’ It will be seen that the teaching is not in the form of a parable.

The Parables of our Lord have been classified thus: —

1. The Setting Aside of Israel

1. The Two Sons (Matt. 21:28-32). Our Lord gives the interpretation. The publicans and the harlots (who virtually said that they would not go) repented and went; whereas the chief priests and the elders (who professed to go and work in God’s vineyard) did not really go.

2. The Wicked Husbandmen (Matt. 21:33-46; Mark 12:1-12; Luke 20:9-19). The Lord gave the key to this parable in the words, “Therefore say I unto you, The kingdom of God shall be taken from you, and given to a nation bringing forth the fruits thereof.” The chief priests and Pharisees perceived that it referred to them.

3. The Barren Fig-tree (Luke 13:6-9). The Lord came (to Israel) seeking fruit; but finding none, ordered the fig-tree to be destroyed; permitted it to remain another year to see if it would yield any fruit, but, alas! we know it did not, and judgment fell upon the city and people.

2. The Setting Up of the Kingdom and Satan’s Opposition to It

1. The Sower (Matt. 13:3-9; Mark 4:3-9; Luke 8:5-8). Our Lord gives the interpretation of this parable. He had come seeking fruit, but finding none, He in grace became a Sower, and He tells us what hinders the seed bringing forth fruit.

2. The Wheat and the Tares (Matt. 13:24-30). Our Lord also explains this parable. He had sown good seed, and Satan had sown darnel among the wheat. All was to be allowed to grow together until the harvest: not grow together in the church, but in the world, or indeed in Christendom.

3. The Growth of Seed (Mark 4:26-29). The seed is completely fitted to produce fruit, and God in an unseen way brings it to perfection, and ripe fruit is the result.

4. The Grain of Mustard Seed (Matt. 13:31-32; Mark 4:30-32; Luke 13:18-19). The seed of the kingdom appears very small, but it prospers into a kingdom; and worldly powers attach themselves to it.

5. The Leaven (Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:20-21). Leaven in Scripture is always a type of evil. The parable teaches that evil will work until all is leavened.

6. The Hidden Treasure (Matt. 13:44). Our Lord bought the field (the world) because of the treasure (His elect) hidden therein.

7. The Pearl of Great Price (Matt. 13:45-46). Similar to the last. There the field was bought; here the one pearl of great price was bought.

8. The Net cast into the Sea (Matt. 13:47-50). The gospel net gathers good and bad (those saved and those who make a profession only); all will be duly sorted at the end of the age.

9. The Pharisee and the Publican (Luke 18:10-14). The Pharisee thanked God for what he himself was, and in his self-righteousness despised the publican. The publican cried for mercy as a guilty sinner, and went to his house justified.

10. The Two Debtors (Luke 7:41-43). The poor woman had been forgiven much, and she loved much.

11. The Unjust Judge (Luke 18:1-8). The Lord gave the key to this parable to His hearers: they “ought always to pray, and not to faint.” The answer will come at the right time, and the earthly elect shall be delivered.

12. The Labourers in the Vineyard (Matt. 20:1-16). This teaches the sovereignty of God, who asks, “Is it not lawful for Me to do what I will with Mine own? ... the last shall be first, and the first last: for many be called, but few chosen.”

3. The Way of God in Bringing into His Kingdom

1. The Lost Sheep (Matt. 18:12-13; Luke 15:4-7). This shows how the Lord Jesus goes after His lost ones, and the joy that there is in heaven in the salvation of a sinner.

2. The Lost Piece of Money (Luke 15:8-10). The Holy Spirit also searches for the lost ones — lost in the house — and again there is joy in the presence of the angels over one repentant sinner.

3. The Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32). This shows the manner of the reception the Father gives to any returning prodigal. “They began to be merry.”

4. The Marriage for the King’s Son (Matt. 22:2-14). God makes a marriage-feast in honour of His Son. The Jews, who were first bidden, would not come; then others, and the most outcast, are invited to the feast — the feast of salvation. But one had not put on the robe provided for him (Christ) and was cast out.

5. The Great Supper (Luke 14:16-24). This is similar to the preceding, but goes out wider. Those bidden did not ill-treat the messengers, as Israel had done, whose city was burnt up. Here all the invited guests make excuses, therefore others are brought in, and some are compelled, that the “house may be filled.” “Where sin abounded, grace did much more abound.”

4. Responsibilities of Those Connected with the Kingdom.

1. The Good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37). The Lord spoke this parable in answer to a question by a lawyer, who, wishing to justify himself, said, “And who is my neighbor?” The lawyer had to confess that the Samaritan had acted “the neighbor” to the poor wounded man. Then our Lord said, “Go, and do thou likewise.” The act of the Samaritan is all the more pointed, because he is the only one of the three who might have been thought to have had a legitimate excuse, because, as “the Jews have no dealings with the Samaritans,” he might have acted in accordance therewith.

2. The Foolish Rich Man (Luke 12:16-21). The explanation of this is given in the few words, “So is he that layeth up treasure for himself, and is not rich toward God.”

3. The Unjust Steward (Luke 16:1-13). The teaching of this parable is to sacrifice present advantage for that which is future. It is the lord of the parable, and not the Lord Jesus that “commended” the steward for his wisdom but our Lord applies the parable thus. Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness (worldly possessions) that ye may be received hereafter into everlasting habitations: similar to the exhortation, “Lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven”; “He that hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the Lord,” etc. Our Lord then exhorts His hearers to be (not like the unjust steward, but) faithful in the unrighteous mammon, which belongs to others, that the true riches belonging to the Christian may be entrusted to them. Contrast the rich man in the next parable who had lived for the present and had not been wise as to the eternal future.

4. The Rich Man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31). Nothing is said in this parable about Lazarus being a good or righteous man, and nothing about the rich man being a wicked man: nor does Abraham bring any such charge against him. He simply said, “Son, remember that thou in thy lifetime receivedst thy good things, and likewise Lazarus evil things: but now he is comforted, and thou art tormented.” The teaching doubtless is that the outward circumstances of a man here are now no proof that he is a righteous man. This was a needful lesson, because in the Old Testament wealth was promised to the righteous. “The generation of the upright shall be blessed. Wealth and riches shall be in his house” (Psa. 112:2-3); the Psalmist said he had never seen the righteous begging bread, etc. All this was to be altered. It was difficult for a rich man to be saved, and many poor were among God’s chosen ones.

5. The Pounds (Luke 19:12-27). This parable was given because Christ “was nigh to Jerusalem, and because they thought that the kingdom of God should immediately appear.” No, He was about to leave them, and to entrust to each of His servants a pound, with the word, “Occupy till I come,” or “Trade till I come.” The simple teaching is that the Christian is to use his gifts not for himself, but for his Lord and Master.

6. The Unmerciful Servant (Matt. 18:23-35). Peter had asked how many times he was to forgive an offending brother, when this parable was spoken. It is elsewhere laid down that according to what we measure out to others, such will be measured out to us (Matt. 7:2). God’s grace does not set aside His government among His saints. There is without doubt in this parable also a description of the Jews’ hatred of grace to the Gentiles. The Gentiles had owed them somewhat, alluded to here as a hundred pence, (About £3 4s. 7d., $4) but what was that in comparison to what the Jews owed to their God, compared here to ten thousand talents (£1,937,500, $2,421,875)? A provisional pardon was preached to them by Peter (Acts 3:19-26), but this grace they rejected, and their treatment of Paul showed that they could not forgive the hundred pence. Matthew 18:34-35 declares their judgment. (See Matt. 5:25-26; 1 Thess. 2:15-16; Isa. 40:2.)

7. The Ten Virgins (Matt. 25:1-13). The teaching of this parable is plain. There is profession without Christ (lamps without oil), and those with oil in their vessels. All went to sleep and forgot the hope of the Bridegroom coming, until the cry went forth that He was near. They awoke, trimmed their lamps, and the wise went in to the marriage, but the unwise are refused admittance. The parable closes with, “Watch therefore, for ye know neither the day nor the hour.” This sets forth the responsibility of Christendom in connection with the Lord’s coming. The long-forgotten hope has been revived by the midnight cry, and great activity is the result, both among wise and unwise, and the Lord is surely at hand. That the virgins symbolize Christians, and not the faithful remnant, is evident, for these will not sleep (persecution will prevent that), nor be a mixed company, nor have a long time to wait for their deliverer.

8. The Talents (Matt. 25:14-30). This is very similar to the parable of the Pounds given in Luke. The Talents immediately follow the parable of the Ten Virgins. While the Lord tarries we are not to go to sleep, as did the virgins, but to use the talents our Lord has given us, and use them for Him.

After our Lord had been relating some of His parables He said to His disciples, “Have ye understood all these things? They say unto Him, Yea, Lord. Then said He unto them, Therefore every scribe which is instructed unto the kingdom of heaven is like unto a man that is an householder, which bringeth forth out of his treasure things new and old” (Matt. 13:51-52).

List of Parables and Similes

PARABLES	Matt.	Mark	Luke
The Wheat and the Tares….	13:24-30
The Hidden Treasure….	13:44
Pearl of Great Price….	13:45-46
The Drag-net….	13:47-50
Unmerciful Servant….	18:23-35
Labourers in the Vineyard….	20:1-16
Sons sent to Labour….	21:28-32
King’s Son’s Marriage….	22:2-14
Ten Virgins….	25:1-13
The Talents….	25:14-30
Sheep and Goats….	25:31-46
Growth of Seed….		4:26-29
Household Watching….		13:34-37
The Two Debtors….			7:41-43
Good Samaritan….			10:30-37
Friend at Midnight….			11:5-8
The Rich Fool….			12:16-21
Servants waiting for their Lord….			12:35-48
Barren Fig Tree….			13:6-9
The Great Supper….			14:16-24
Tower and Strong King….			14:28-33
Lost Piece of Money….			15:8-10
Prodigal Son….			15:11-32
Unjust Steward….			16:1-13
Rich Man and Lazarus….			16:19-31
Master and Servant….			17:7-10
Importunate Widow….			18:1-8
Pharisee and Publican….			18:10-14
The Pounds….			19:12-27
Houses on the Rock and the Sand….	7:24-27		6:48-49
The Leaven….	13:33		13:20-21
Lost Sheep….	18:12-13		15:4-7
New Cloth in Old Garment….	9:16	2:21	5:36
New Wine in Old Bottles….	9:17	2:22	5:37-39
The Sower….	13:3-9	4:3-9	8:5-8
Candle Under a Bushel or a Bed….	5:15	4:21	8:16
Mustard Seed….	13:31-32	4:30-32	13:18-19
The Vineyard and Husbandmen….	21:33-46	12:1-12	20:9-19
Young Leaves of Fig Tree….	24:32-35	13:28-31	21:29-33

Persons: Typical and Illustrative

In the Old Testament there is a large and varied store of typical teaching, but the mine will only yield its wealth to the diligent worker. “The slothful man roasteth not that which he took in hunting.” The Spirit of God has laid under contribution, persons, places, events, and things in general in teaching Christ to us, and in the unfolding of the circle of Divine truth of which He is the center.

The 39 books comprising the Old Testament are like a picture gallery, but the collection of pictures although large and varied, is meaningless and uninteresting without a guide to explain and a key to unlock the boundless treasure. But the Holy Spirit — the guide into all truth has come — and the ‘Son’ sent from God, the key surely to the whole Word of God; and now these typical pictures stand out before us conveying their precious lessons, and unfolding the Christ of God in His glories and work to our hearts. This kind of teaching is solid food, belonging “to them that are of full age, even those who by reason of use have their senses exercised to discern both good and evil.”

The dispensational types of Genesis, the redemption types of Exodus, the sacrificial types of Leviticus, the wilderness types of Numbers, the Canaan types of Joshua, the Kingdom types of the historical writings and the prophetic types of the Prophets will yield a harvest both rich and abundant to all who care to labour in this profoundly interesting field of Bible research.

The study of the types, however, require careful handling, and the student will need grace to curb imagination and check severely the mere working of mind or intellect; for our encouragement, however, let us remember that we are endowed with the mind of Christ (1 Cor. 2:16) and the Holy Spirit the power of the new man.

Red Heifer - Wilderness Defilement

Numbers 19

This was a special provision to meet wilderness defilement. Our standing as Christians before God is founded on the accomplished work of the cross (Lev. 16). Our whole condition as sinners has been divinely met, and that for God and eternity, by the blood of Jesus. Our weakness, infirmity, and sorrow as saints have their blessed answer in the unchangeable priesthood of the Son of God on high; while positive failure and defilement, contracted while passing on to our eternal rest, are securely provisioned for in the advocacy of Christ with the Father, in answer to which the spirit brings the written Word (the running water, Num. 19) and the remembrance of Christ in agony and death (the ashes, Num. 19) to bear upon the conscience of the erring one. Confession full and thorough follows, and the result is that the impaired communion with God is again restored. But be it carefully noted that this is Divine provision for a saint of God, one whose standing is in Divine righteousness, and of whose eternal safety there is not the least doubt.

The red heifer must be spotless, unblemished, “wherein is no blemish,” and “upon which never came yoke.” Thus is Christ set forth in the absolute perfection of His nature, and in the holiness of His life. Like the sin offering, the animal was wholly consumed outside the camp, but with this marked peculiarity that the fat and the blood — the excellency and the life — were also consumed, save a little of the blood, which was reserved, and sprinkled seven times (perfection) before the Tabernacle. Thus the witness of death was brought before the eye of God. Cedar wood, hyssop, and scarlet were then cast into the midst of the burning. Human nature in its best estate (cedar), in its lowest forms (hyssop), and all earthly glory (scarlet) for the Christian, went in the cross of Jesus. The ashes — remembrance of Christ’s agony and wrath of God — were carefully gathered up as a “purification for sin,” and along with running water — figure of the searching and convicting Word of God — were sprinkled by a clean person on the defiled one, on the third and seventh days. The third day’s sprinkling was in view of his sin, the second sprinkling was in light of God’s grace. The first would lead to a deepening sense of what sin is in light of what Jesus suffered, and the other application of the ashes and water would as surely lead to a more profound sense of what grace can accomplish as the fruit of the cross.

Blessed Saviour, we will soon be with Thee, and our sinning and our suffering will be all over.

Seasons and Divisions of the Year

The Jewish Rabbins divided the year into six seasons, and their arrangement prevails throughout the lands of Scripture even to the present day. The descendants of Ishmael, roaming a free and unconquered people in the deserts of Arabia, have continued circumcising their sons when thirteen years old, after the example of their great progenitor Ishmael, who was circumcised at that age (Gen. 17:25); they also observe the seasons, as is done generally in the east, according to the ancient order noted in Genesis 8:22. An uninterrupted continuance of the seasons is secured on Divine authority, so long as the “earth remaineth.” The seasons commenced in the middle of the months.

First season or Harvest, from Abib to Sivan — April to June.

Second season or Summer, from Sivan to Ab — June to August.

Third season or Heat, from Ab to Tisri — August to October.

Fourth season or Seed-Time, from Tisri to Chisleu — October to December.

Fifth season or Winter, from Chisleu to Sebat — December to February.

Sixth season or Cold, from Sebat to Abib — February to April.

In the sketch given of the Physical Features of Israel it will be seen that some parts of the land are much more elevated than others; this being the case, the seasons for agricultural purposes necessarily vary more or less for different districts.

Our Lord said that when the fig-tree put forth its leaves summer was nigh (Matt. 24:32). This would agree nearly with the month of May.

Winter is spoken of as unsuitable for flight from the doomed city (Matt. 24:20). The feast of the dedication is also said to be in winter. It was not safe for ships to sail on the Mediterranean Sea in winter (Acts 27:12). Paul speaks twice of wintering in certain places in Asia Minor, as if it was difficult to travel then.

The above occurrences are the only intimations of the seasons in the New Testament. We give the traditional list of seasons, usually found in books of reference; and also some statistics of actual observations in the land. It will be seen that these modern statistics do not always agree with the traditional list. For instance, Bul is called the rainy month; the word occurs only once (1 Kings 6:38) and is supposed to signify ‘rain’; but the statistics show that there is much more rain now in December and January. The early rain and the latter rain are also placed to months in which there appears now to be but little rain; but the terms ‘early’ and ‘latter’ may refer to when the rain is most valuable, and not when it is most plentiful. The climate and seasons may have somewhat altered.

It was foretold that the land of promise should “drink water of the rain of heaven.” They should have rain in due season, the first rain and the latter rain, that they might gather in the corn, the wine, and the oil (Deut. 11:11-14).

Dr. Barker gives the average quantity of rain during nine years in Jerusalem as 56.5 inches, which is a great deal more than given in the statistics. As to the temperature at Jerusalem, Dr. Barker gives the highest during five years (1851-5) as 92°, and the lowest 28°; the mean average during the year being 66.5°. The average temperature in January was 49.4°, and in August 79.3°.

Seed time commences as soon as rain has fallen at the end of October or early in November, and continues till January. Harvest in low, protected parts begins at the end of March or early in April; in the hill country it is a month later; and in the north, from June to the end of July. The rains of November clothe the fields with grass. In January citrons, oranges, and lemons are ripe. In February, apple, pear, plum, and apricot trees are in blossom. In May, apricots and melons are ripe in the warm parts. In June, figs, cherries, and plums begin to ripen; but August is the chief month for fruit: the grape, fig, pomegranate, and peach are in their prime, and the vintage extends through September. In August the great heat begins to dry up vegetation, which continues until the whole scene changes to what appears to be a dry and barren land; but the early rains soon show again that it is only the surface that is parched. All are agreed that under better cultivation the land would be very productive.

The six seasons, named in Genesis 8:22, are arranged to occupy two months each, and to follow thus: —

	Seed-time to occupy	October and November.
	Winter to occupy	December and January.
	Cold to occupy	February and March.
	Harvest to occupy	April and May.
	Summer to occupy	June and July.
	Heat to occupy	August and September.

Such seasons must necessarily over-lap each other. It is said that the same divisions still exist among the Arabs.

The months were arranged by the new moon becoming visible. New moon to new moon occupies about 29½ days, and it will be seen that the months were alternately 30 and 29 days, which agreed with the changes of the moon very well; but the whole twelve months amounted to only 354 days — 11¼ days short of the solar year. This must have been discovered very soon, because of the first fruits of the barley and wheat harvest having appointed times for their presentation in the temple. In three years a month would be lost, and an additional month was from time to time added, called Ve-adar, the ‘added Adar.’

Jewish Calendars and Its Antitypes

Sebat, Tammuz and Ab are not named in Scripture. The names in italics are used by Josephus and others.

Sacred	Civil	English Months	Jewish	Seasons	Feasts	Antitypes
Months	Months		Months
10	4	December January	Tebeth 29 days	Mid-Winter
11	5	January	Sebat	Winter
		February	30 days
12	6	February March	Adar 29 days	Cold Latter Rain Spring	14. Purim
					15. or Lots
					Esther 3:7; 9:26
1	7	March	Abib or Nisan 30 days	Barley Harvest	14. Passover	Christ our Passover
		April			16. Firstfruits of Barley	The Resurrection
					15-21. Unleavened Bread
2	8	April	Zit or Iyar	Summer
		May	29 days
3	9	May	Sivan	Wheat	6. Feast of Weeks	Decent of the Holy Spirit
		June	30 days	Harvest	Pentecost	Acts 2
					First fruits of wheat
4	10	June	Tammuz	Hot Season
		July	29 days
5	11	July	Ab	Principal month for fruit
		August	30 days
6	12	August	Elul	Vintage general
		September	29 days
7	1	September	Ethanum	Seed time	1. Feast of Trumpets	Israel awakened, afflict their souls, receive their Messiah
		October	or Tisri	Early rain	10. Day of Atonement
			30 days		15-21 Tablernacles
8	2	October	Bul or Marchesvan	Rainy month
		November	30 days
9	3	November	Chisleu	Winter begins	25. Feast of Dedication
		December	30 days

Temperature and Rain in Israel

	In 1887			Mean of all the highest and lowest			Rain
	Highest	Lowest	Mean	Highest	Lowest	Mean	Inches
January	78	32.5	55.2	63.4	44.9	54.1	5.74
February	77	37	57	64.3	44	54.2	2.27
March	89	37	63	67.9	46.6	57.2	0.89
April	97	43	70	78	52.9	65.5	0.07
May	98	45	71.5	80.2	56.3	68.3	0.95
June	89	58	73.5	83.9	62.7	73.3	0
July	89	62	75.5	85.9	66.1	76	0
August	92	64	78	88.5	69.1	78.8	0
September	90	61	75.5	86.6	67.3	77	0.08
October	100	57	78.5	88.2	63.8	76	0
November	82	52	67	77.8	57.2	67.5	1.84
December	76	46	61	70.1	50.9	60.5	5.22
MEAN	88.1	49.5	68.8	77.9	56.8	67.3	1.42

In 1887 rain fell only 43 days in the year. The most prevalent winds were West and South West.

The above observations were taken at Sarona, north of the great orange groves of Jaffa, 1.5 miles from the sea shore, and about 55 feet above the level of the sea; taken by Herr J. Dreher and arranged by Jas Glaisher, Esq. F. R. S. The degrees are Fahrenheit. From Quarterly Statement of Palestine Exploration Fund, 1890.

Sepulchers, Tombs, and Burials

There is really no distinction in the New Testament between a ‘sepulchre’ and a ‘tomb’: the same Greek words are translated by either, when the same place is referred to. The Greek words, μνηεῖον, μνῆμα, refer to the memory — and thence to ‘a memorial.’ These words are also translated ‘grave’ in every place where ‘grave’ occurs, except in 1 Corinthians 15:55, where it is really Hades. Another Greek word (τάφος) is translated both ‘sepulchre’ and ‘tomb,’ signifying ‘burial,’ and hence ‘the place of burial.’

There is therefore nothing in the Greek words used that will help us as to the various forms of tombs to be found in Israel, though the context in some passages point out what kind of burying place is referred to.

1. There are simple graves — holes dug in the ground, and covered over, sometimes with one or more large stones. Our Lord compared the scribes and Pharisees to “graves which appear not, and the men that walk over them are not aware of them” (Luke 11:44).

2. There are some tombs hewn out of the rock, and a single stone placed over the mouth, as was the case in the tomb of Lazarus. “It was a cave, and a stone lay upon it. Jesus said, Take ye away the stone” (John 11:38-39). The Lord’s tomb was also hewn in the rock, and a stone was rolled to the mouth to close it. A similar one is still in existence.

3. There are others which are said to be built, and over the place where the body was laid a more or less ornamental tomb was erected, similar to those which are seen in most modern cemeteries. Our Lord said that the scribes and Pharisees built the tombs of the prophets, and garnished the sepulchres of the righteous (Matt. 23:29).

4. In places, especially near Jerusalem, large tombs are found, in which there are long passages with holes cut in the sides of the rock. These tombs would contain many bodies, and the passages, which ran in various directions, could be extended when all the receptacles were filled. Thus we read in the Old Testament of the ‘tombs of the kings,’ where many were buried, and from which some of the bad kings were excluded. Those now called the Tombs of the Kings will be seen in a map to the north of the city; and the Tombs of the Prophets on the Mount of Olives.

The Lord also compared the scribes and Pharisees to whited sepulchres, which stood in strong contrast to the dead men’s bones and the uncleanness that were found within. According to tradition, the sepulchres were all white-washed once a year, that the people might readily see them, and avoid pollution by touching them.

We learn by the tomb in which the Lord was buried, that, though there may have been a public burial ground, which their writings say must be a certain distance from a city to prevent pollution — the rich were allowed to have their private tombs elsewhere. Joseph of Arimathaea had had this tomb hewn out of the rock in a garden near the place of execution. By its size it was apparently intended for a family tomb.

There were also natural caves that were used as tombs, in which many could be interred. Thus we find Abraham bought the cave of Machpelah in which to bury Sarah (Gen. 23:3-20), and in the gospels we read of a demoniac, who lived in the tombs (Luke 8:27) which were most probably caves, the mouths of which were left open.

It is recorded that the Jews were particular that none of any other nation should be buried among their dead. This seems confirmed by the council buying with the money Judas returned, a field to bury strangers in (Matt. 27:7).

There does not appear to have been any delay in burying the dead. In hot climates it is not customary to delay the burial. Ananias and Sapphira were buried immediately.

Nor were coffins used. It is said that the young men ‘wound up’ Ananias, that is, bound him up in his own clothes. Lazarus also is said to have come forth bound hand and foot with graveclothes; and his face bound about with a napkin. Cloths were bound round the ordinary clothing. Of the Lord we read that the linen clothes (cloths) were found lying by themselves, not with the napkin that had been about his head. All were folded up, and left in order, as became such a victory over death.

We read that Nicodemus brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about a hundred pound weight, and with Joseph wound the body of Jesus in linen cloths with the spices, as the manner of the Jews was to bury (John 19:38-40). Mary Magdalene and other women also brought spices for the same purpose. We do not read that embalming was practiced by the Jews.

The body was carried on a bier (Luke 7:14), which was a light frame used as a couch (not ‘coffin’ as in the margin of the above passage), on which the body was laid.

From this passage we also learn that the young man’s mother and much people attended the burial.

After a burial the relatives and friends went home to mourn for the dead. In the case of Lazarus, four days after the death, many Jews were with Martha and Mary to comfort them, and no doubt to mourn with them, for when Mary rose to go and meet the Lord they thought she was going to the grave to weep there. It is said that ordinarily mourning was continued for eight days.

On the occasion of the death of the ruler’s daughter (Matt. 9:23), we read of minstrels and people making a noise! In the Old Testament it is clear that there were hired mourners who were employed to mourn for the dead (see Amos 5:16), and the same custom has been met with by modern travellers, who describe the wailings as hideous. The minstrels played soft, doleful music (see also Jer. 16:5-7).

The Jews had other modes of showing their grief, as smiting their breasts (Luke 23:48), neglecting their personal appearance, putting ashes and dust on their heads, rending their garments, sitting in silence, refusing food, etc.

Doubtless amid all the outward demonstrations of grief, there was real natural sorrow, where loved ones were taken away, as in the case of Martha and Mary losing Lazarus. How touching to read, when Mary came to Jesus, that when He “saw her weeping, and the Jews also weeping which came with her, He groaned in the spirit, and was troubled. ... Jesus wept. Then said the Jews, Behold how He loved him!” (John 11:33-36). As our Lord wept with Martha and Mary, and is touched with the feeling of our infirmities, so are we exhorted to weep with those that weep.

Signs and Wonders in the Land of Egypt

Egypt is one of the most ancient and memorable of all countries. It is about 480 miles long and 250 miles at its widest, and has ever been regarded as a great corn producing country; the cultivated area is about 16,000 square miles, and its population probably does not exceed 5,000,000. It has been the scene of some of the grandest facts wrought by Divine power, and is once again rapidly coming into prominence in the political and prophetic arena. Egypt’s connection with Judea and the future generally, especially with Syria as in the past, is a point of growing interest to the student of the prophetic word. The power of Jehovah has been awfully witnessed in the land of Egypt, while the grace of Jehovah has been exhibited in the land of Israel. The eloquent Dr. A. Thomson justly remarks: “All through the centuries of the Jewish church, and the period of the prophetic revelation, Egypt appears either as the tempter or as the persecutor of Israel, dividing the guilt in this respect with the Babylonian and Assyrian monarchies to the east of the sacred land.”

Moses, Israel’s deliverer and legislator, was eighty years old when first commissioned to effect the deliverance of Jehovah’s people from Egyptian captivity (Acts 7:23, compare with verse 30). A second commission was given him in the land of Egypt, the first being in Midian. Exodus 3 and 4 records the history of the first charge, while Exodus 6 details the history of the second. The first demand upon Pharaoh was limited to a three days’ departure from the land, that the people might sacrifice and worship (Ex. 5:3). This the king proudly and peremptorily refused, and, as an answer to Jehovah’s intervention in behalf of His people, greatly increased their burdens, and urged the taskmasters to increased severity. But the haughty rejection of Jehovah and of His righteous claims only prepared the way for a commission to Moses, not now limited to a three days’ departure for rest and worship in the wilderness, but one demanding the full and final deliverance of all the people. Jehovah’s “I will,” seven times repeated within the compass of three verses (ch. 6:6-8), announced the calm, settled, and sovereign purpose of God respecting His people. Pharaoh — type of Satan’s power and rigorous rule — disputes the rights of God, rejects His authority, and at once it ceased to be a question between the oppressor and the oppressed, between the Egyptians and the Hebrews. The ground is shifted, and it becomes an exceedingly solemn matter — one between the gods of Egypt and the only living and true God.

The signs of Exodus 4 were for the accrediting of the Divine mission of Moses. Paul, the most eminent servant and brightest witness of grace in New Testament times, when questioned as to his apostleship, appealed to the “signs” he wrought (2 Cor. 12:12), but ministerial service generally is best proved by the godly, practical life of the servant (2 Cor. 6:4-10). The first sign given to assure the heart of Moses and establish his soul in the confidence of his mission was the “rod” — emblem of authority — turned into a “serpent” — power of Satan — again becoming a “rod” in his hand (verses 2-4). This would intimate the God-given power of Moses over all the power of the enemy, even though led on by Satan. The second reassuring sign to Moses and Israel was the hand of the deliverer put into his bosom, then withdrawn, and becoming “leprous as snow”; again the hand was put into his bosom, and, when withdrawn, “it was turned again as his other flesh” (verses 6-7). Leprosy is the well-known type of sin in its defiling character, and the leprous hand in the bosom would aptly express that sin has its root in the heart of man; God’s power over sin in man is the thought in this deeply-significant sign. The third proof or sign was one, if possible, more solemn than either of the two foregoing — water poured upon the dry land turned into blood (verse 9). The natural resources at man’s disposal are turned into death. These signs set forth God’s power over Satanic authority exercised in the world, sin in the flesh, and the varied resources of man; thus God would sanction the holy mission of Moses in effecting the deliverance of His people.

The ten plagues were sternly-executed judgments upon Pharaoh, his people, land, and gods. Their prime object was to signalize the power of Jehovah, and to assert His rights in presence of the full power of Satan and man. Do the Hebrew people belong to God or Satan? Such, we believe, to have been the solemn issue raised in the execution of these Divine judgments (Ex. 7-12). Before, however, the struggle really commenced, the vaunted wisdom of Egypt was put to the test, and utterly baffled in the immediate presence of the world’s mighty monarch, who was thus left without excuse on the one hand, and the mission of Moses and Aaron amply vindicated on the other. “And Moses and Aaron went in unto Pharaoh, and they did so as the Lord had commanded: and Aaron cast down his rod before Pharaoh, and before his servants, and it became a serpent” (ch. 7:10). The celebrated magicians of Egypt called in by the king did so by their “enchantments.” How they performed this wonderful feat, we are not informed, nor are we curious to inquire, but the result proved that, “Surely there is no enchantment against Jacob, neither is there any divination against Israel: according to this time it shall be said of Jacob and of Israel, What hath God wrought!” (Num. 23:23). We read “Aaron’s rod swallowed up their rods”; in this there could be no imitation, nor was it attempted. The miracle was complete, for the serpent became a rod again in the hands of Aaron. All this was contrary to nature. Who ever heard of serpents swallowing each other? They eat slowly at the best, and for one to swallow many, and then as before to become a staff was truly a miraculous sign and before which the wisdom of Egypt might well quail. This remarkable sign or rather miracle, however, only induced hardness of heart on the part of the monarch. It is true God hardened Pharaoh’s heart but it was after his rejection of Divine testimony, miraculously and divinely attested. It is not said that God fitted the vessels of wrath to destruction, but it is said that He prepared afore the vessels of mercy unto glory (Rom. 9:22-23). God never prepares a soul for destruction, but He does fit it for glory.

Now the conflict begins, and plague after plague is sent, reaching to the very heart of the power, wisdom, and religion of the king and people.

First Plague
The Waters of the Nile Turned to Blood

The celebrated river of Egypt, the Nile, with its canals, streams, and various tributaries, was turned to blood and stank; the fish, too, with which the river abounded, died. This must have been exceedingly humbling to the pride of Egypt, as the Nile, its only river, and the only source of vegetation to the country by its annual overflow (as little or no rain falls), was regarded as a special deity and worshipped accordingly, and its waters for agricultural, domestic, and other purposes were, of course, indispensable. Formerly Osiris, the Egyptian sun-god, was believed to have been the source from whence the Nile descended and was worshipped accordingly, but in course of time that homage was transferred to the river. The sentence of death was thus written on the nation’s pride and boast. “Blood,” the distinct and solemn witness of death, overspread the whole land of Egypt (ch. 7:21). The magicians, we are told, did so by their enchantments, but as “all the waters” had been turned to blood, the surpassing greatness of the Divine judgment must have been apparent even to the infatuated monarch himself (ch. 7:14-25).

Second Plague
Frogs Upon the Land and the People

The continued hardening of Pharaoh’s heart caused a second visitation of judgment worse, in some respects, than the previous one. By hard labour the people might procure sufficient water for drinking (ch. 7:24), but there was no such relief granted from the plague of “frogs” produced from the waters, and which covered the land, filling the houses, and coming up upon king and people alike. In the waters being turned to blood, we are not informed that the king personally suffered, but under this Divine infliction he suffers as the rest of his people (chap 8:4-8). This judgment must have been a terrible blow to the religious faith and feelings of the country, for the “frog” was worshipped and held in high honour. To such an extent was this carried that “frogs” have been found carefully preserved and embalmed in the tombs at Thebes. The magicians by their arts only increased the general misery by adding to the number, and they did so after the land was swarming with them. What a poor and miserable imitation of a truly miraculous act! In the first plague the waters stank (ch. 7:21); in the second the land stank (ch. 8:14); surely, too, we can discern the haughty spirit of the monarch slightly broken, as in this judgment he personally appeals to Moses and Aaron for the removal of the “frogs” (ch. 8:8), whereas in the previous judgment he retired, evidently sullen and hardened, into his house (ch. 7:23). Details of the frog-judgment will be found in Exodus 8:1-15.

Third Plague
Dust of the Land Becoming Lice

On the stretching forth of Aaron’s rod, the dust of the land became energetic with life, and man and beast were covered with the loathsome and disgusting insects. This must have been a grievous and terrible infliction in a warm and sunny country like Egypt, where the clouds of dust almost darken the air, and for want of rain, cannot by any possibility be laid. The sufferings of the people must have been intense and almost intolerable, besides which personal cleanliness formed an integral part of Egyptian religious life. In the previous judgment we have life multiplied, the ‘frogs’ swarmed out of the waters, their natural element; in this one, however, we have life created out of the dust of the ground. In this the powerlessness of man is evident. All the resources of the magicians were put in requisition and utter failure was the result (ch. 8:18); they retired from the contest vanquished and humbled, but not until they addressed the monarch in a brief and pregnant sentence: “This is the finger of God.” After this acknowledgment of God we hear no more of the wise men and magicians. The creation of life is beyond the power and wisdom of man or Satan. No person was allowed under any consideration to enter any temple with vermin upon them, and their priests, we are told, on the authority of Herodotus, were shaved every three days, and both they and the people accustomed to continual ablutions in their persons and garments. What a terrible blow therefore to their religious life (ch. 8:16-19).

Fourth Plague
Swarms of Flies

It will be observed that the words “of flies” are italicized, and occur seven times in the account given of the fourth plague; they are not found in the original. Whatever kind of insect is referred to, little matter, as the point is the effect produced and the result. The ground, houses, people and king were covered with the destroying creatures. In the first plague “the river stank,” in the second “the land stank.” Under this terrible visitation “the land was corrupted” or “destroyed.” In a country like Egypt, where idolatry of the most debasing character was universally practiced, where certain kinds of insects as the beetle were adored and worshipped, this judgment must have produced dismay and terror amongst the Egyptians. God had already triumphed over the wise men and magicians, and that by their own confession (ch. 8:19), and now Jehovah is evidently dealing with their numerous deities, and evincing their utter worthlessness, and that in view of king, servants, priests and people. The dagons of Egypt, one after the other, fall before the Lord of Hosts. For the first time in these judgments Jehovah severs the land of Goshen, in which His people dwelt, and distinguishes between them and the Egyptians (ch. 8:22-23). Pharaoh, awed by the severity of this dire calamity, “called for Moses and Aaron, and said, Go ye, sacrifice to your God in the land”; but no, the demands of Jehovah, the God of Israel, must be answered to the full; the wilderness had been ordained in the first instance, as the place of sacrifice (ch. 3:18), and so the unworthy compromise is firmly rejected, and Moses insists upon the first demand — a three day’s journey into the wilderness, there to sacrifice, and faithfully warns the monarch against further trifling with the unanswered claims of Jehovah (ch. 8:20-32).

Fifth Plague
Death Upon the Cattle

The severity of the judgments increase, and the calls of Jehovah for the final release of His people more peremptory. “A very grievous murrain,” or death, as the word signifies, specially and directly inflicted by “the hand of the Lord,” fell upon all the Egyptian cattle. Horses, asses, camels, oxen, and sheep — source of the domestic and commercial business life of the country — being destroyed, must have seriously crippled their resources for trade and commerce; while the death of their sacred animals, the goat, cow, and especially the great god Apis, the ‘Bull’ — who was so venerated, that on a certain occasion the whole nation went into mourning on his death — must have been a sad and terrible blow to the religious faith and feelings of the people. “All the cattle of Egypt died: but of the cattle of the children of Israel died not one” (ch. 9:6). This second preservation of Israel from judgment seems to have been a matter of surprise and inquiry to Pharaoh (ch. 9:7); but, alas, without the least softening of heart or slightest exercise of conscience (ch. 9:1-7).

Sixth Plague
Boils and Blains Upon Man and Beast

Hitherto the various judgments had but touched the Egyptians in their circumstances and surroundings, but now the people themselves suffer. Moses sprinkled ashes of the furnace toward heaven in the sight of Pharaoh. This significant action was the invocation of Divine judgment, and is a very ancient custom, being still practiced in certain parts of the east. Most painful ulcerous sores broke out upon the people, the magicians, and beasts. This truly dreadful judgment was not confined to a special class or limited sphere (save, as before, Goshen and its dwellers), but “all the Egyptians” suffered throughout “all the land of Egypt.” The wise men specially smarted under this Divine infliction (ch. 9:11); but the obdurate heart of the king still remained untouched (ch. 9:8-12).

Seventh Plague
Awful Storm of Hail

In this judgment there is great circumstantiality of detail. Such a storm of hail, thunder, and fire never before visited Egypt since her formation as a kingdom (ch. 9:18) nor since. That peculiarly rich and fertile country is one exempted from storms, and one in which rain almost never falls; little wonder, then, that the haughty king was thoroughly terrified and forced to confess it too; for here were combined the elements of nature, which descended with such terrific force that all in the fields or outside, whether man or beast, were destroyed: the trees were broken, and the low-lying plants were smitten. Such a hurricane never was seen or felt by Egypt before or since. But our God delights in mercy, while judgment is His strange work; and so the total extinction of all agriculture in the country (Goshen as before excepted) must have been the result had not the wheat and the rye, then but in germ, been preserved (ch. 9:32). No doubt some of the servants or people of Pharaoh believed in the word of Jehovah, and thus preserved life in obedience to that word (ch. 9:19-20). For the first time in those judgments Pharaoh, through terror, no doubt, confesses the sin of himself and people, and justifies God in their infliction; but, as before, on the removal of the judgment, he hardened his heart, and, it is added, “his servants’.” If it be asked, Why those awful judgments? increasing in severity as they succeed each other, the answer is at hand — Jehovah’s power must be shown, and Jehovah’s name declared throughout all the earth (ch. 9:16). These glorious results have been accomplished through Jehovah’s doings in the land of Ham (ch. 9:13-35).

Eighth Plague
The Land Covered with Devouring Swarms of Locusts

Egypt was beginning to shake and tremble under the powerful hand of Jehovah, and either the haughty spirit of the monarch must be broken, or he perish by these judgments. A mighty swarm of “locusts” was threatened, so numerous that the face of the ground could not be seen (ch. 10:5). Vegetation would be utterly destroyed, and the whole country turned into a desert; what had escaped the ravages of the “hail” would be consumed by the devouring swarms of “locusts”; the houses too would be filled with them, and nothing eatable escape. The result would be that the land would be visited with famine, mourning, and death. The servants of Pharaoh were thoroughly alarmed; the appalling nature of the calamity, they sought to avert by appealing to the king, adding, “Knowest thou not yet that Egypt is destroyed?” (verse 7). The monarch yielded so far to the remonstrances of his ministers, as to call for the Hebrew leaders and grant liberty to depart, reserving, however, the women, children, and flocks; but Moses rejected the base compromise, insisting upon a full surrender of all belonging to Jehovah: “And Moses said, We will go with our young and with our old, with our sons and with our daughters, with our flocks and with our herds will we go, for we must hold a feast unto the Lord” (verse 9). In anger the Hebrew brothers were driven from the presence of the king, and the threatened judgment came. The ruin and devastation that ensued is vividly described in verse 15. Now the proud king quailed and hastily calling for Moses and Aaron, he once more confessed that he had “sinned against the Lord your God,” further adding, “and against you.” Earnestly he begged forgiveness, and entreated for the removal of the plague. This dreadful incursion of locusts, the like of which for number and kind had never before been witnessed, and used by the Lord in the infliction of judgment upon the oppressors of His people, then in captivity, are also employed (symbolically of course) by Satan, in judgment upon Israel in apostasy from God and truth, in the last days (Rev. 9:1-11). The continued hardening of Pharaoh’s heart led to still further and even more glorious displays of Jehovah’s power and name (Ex. 10:1-20).

Ninth Plague
The Land Three Days Shrouded in Thick Darkness

We could scarcely conceive of a judgment more appalling than that with which God now visited Egypt, “one of the sunniest lands of the world.” The thick darkness which overspread the whole land, save the favoured spot where the Israelites were located, was so dense as to be “felt” (ch. 10:21). The people could neither see nor move about for three days (verse 23). This scene of horror, if prolonged, must have resulted in either death or insanity. But God graciously limited its duration to three days. In order that the awful character of this severest of any of the judgments which had yet fallen upon Egypt be understood, it must be borne in mind that the worship of the sun was common there, as in eastern lands generally. One of the principal cities, called On, signifying house of the sun, was the seat of this idolatrous form of worship. Thus blow after blow had been dealt at the wisdom and religion of Egypt. Its power had yet to be crushed, and that would be by one grand decisive act, reserved for that magnificent action at the Red Sea, when God accomplished in glory the deliverance of His people, and sunk the chivalry and power of the enemy as lead in the depths of the sea. The terrible contest is drawing to a close. Their gods, one after the other, instead of being a source of help, have become plagues which they long to get rid of, and the source of misery to king and people, and one of their principal and all-powerful deities has forsaken them, the darkness being as great as it was in the chaotic period, before God said, “Let there be light.” The darkness of the ninth plague has the same word in the original to express it as in Genesis 1:2.

Awed by the terrible severity of this judgment, Pharaoh again sought to qualify the demands of Jehovah by retaining the flocks and herds; but, no, Jehovah will allow of no compromise; and “there shall not an hoof be left behind” was the stern and unyielding reply of the Hebrew prophet and deliverer. Pharaoh, incensed at the boldness of Moses, replied, “Get thee from me, take heed to thyself, see my face no more; for in that day that thou seest my face thou shalt die.” Thus the infatuated monarch sealed his own doom. This we learn in the calm and dignified reply of Moses, “Thou hast spoken well, I will see thy face again no more” (ch. 10:21-29).

Tenth Plague
Death of the Firstborn of Man and Beast

There is a peculiar air of solemnity about this last plague, not merely in the awful nature of the judgment, but also in its attendant circumstances. One feels treading on holy ground. This midnight visitation of sharp and sudden judgment, death, upon the firstborn — the pride, the glory, the strength of Egypt — sent a bitter wail of anguish throughout the whole land. From it none could escape; it could not be foreseen nor averted in any wise. It embraced in its range the monarch on the throne to the maid-slave at the mill. The princes, people, cattle, and beasts all came in as sharers in this terrible judgment. “And it came to pass, that at midnight the Lord smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh that sat on his throne unto the firstborn of the captive that was in the dungeon; and all the firstborn of cattle.” Not a household but was visited in judgment. Such a cry never before was heard in Egypt, and never will — although that land is yet to be visited by judgments which will desolate it, and its people oppressed even as they oppressed Israel (Isa. 19). The terror and dismay of the people is general; and, now, instead of seeking to detain the Hebrews, their little ones, or flocks, “the Egyptians were urgent upon the people, that they might send them out of the land in haste; for they said, we be all dead men.”

Preparatory to their departure it is said the Hebrews “borrowed of the Egyptians jewels of silver, and jewels of gold, and raiment.” The wealth and riches of Egypt were lavished in profusion and abundance upon the departing people, who “spoiled the Egyptians.” The word “borrowed” need present no difficulty to the reader, as the Hebrew word simply means to demand or ask, and surely the right to do so was unquestionable after such a lengthy period of servitude — their only wages being the cruel lash of the taskmasters. The conduct of the people in this needs no defence or apology, as their claim was a just one, and God caused it to be respected (ch. 12:36).

But a much more serious question than the unqualified release of Israel from the iron rule of Egypt was raised in the infliction of these judgments, especially of the last. Righteousness displayed in judgment, as also exhibited in salvation, was the great moral question of that day, even as of this. Both the judgment and the salvation were temporal, but surely they speak of themes infinitely glorious, and instruct in truths of everlasting importance.

In this awful judgment, therefore, all were equally involved, from it there could be no exemption. All stood before God on one common ground, for all had sinned. The oppressor and the oppressed, the master and the slave, the proud Egyptian and the Hebrew servant, stood before God on the platform of a ruined humanity. The sword of judgment would search the land of Goshen equally with the palace of Pharaoh. But, blessed be God! He who bore the sword on that dark midnight, and entered the unsprinkled dwellings, had before appointed a righteous ground and means of deliverance. The lamb slain instead of the Israelite told out impressively that the only way of escape from coming wrath is by another bearing the judgment. The glorious truth of substitution and its application to the believer as before God, is the grand teaching of Exodus 12. “Christ our passover is sacrificed for us” (1 Cor. 5:7), is the Holy Spirit’s commentary on this first and significant of all the feasts of Jehovah. We doubt if in the volume of inspiration, a passage could be produced to excel Exodus 12: “And the blood shall be to you for a token upon the houses where ye are: and when I (Jehovah) see the blood, I will pass over you.” What a resting place for the wretched heart and struggling conscience of man; yea, a Divine resting place for weary souls (chs. 11, 12).

The Red Sea Judgment

After the solemn midnight judgment of the first-born of Egypt, and the due observance of the passover by Israel, the people leave the land of their captivity, laden with wealth, but trammelled with a mixed multitude, which afterward became a snare to them (Num. 11:4). They might easily have entered the great Arabian desert, the scene of their wanderings, without crossing the Red Sea at all. Had they rounded the Red Sea at any point above Suez they would have found no canal or passage to intercept their progress as now. But that would not have accomplished the counsels of God’s love towards His people. The power of Jehovah over His and His people’s enemies had to be displayed, and the Salvation of God enjoyed, so the people were directed to retrace their steps, and march southward towards the Red Sea, where they encamped at a point some miles below Suez (ch. 14:2). They could not have selected a spot more hopeless of escape. The sea barred their progress in front, while on their right and left precipitous rocks and mountains of considerable height effectually hindered retreat. It is true that the passage through which they had entered was free, but the power of the enemy would soon occupy that only avenue of escape, and then death by the sword of the Egyptians, or a captivity more cruel than that from which they had just escaped, or death in the Red Sea were the dread alternatives. But Jehovah led His people thither, and that surely was enough for faith. It thus became a question between God and the enemy. Would Satan dispute God’s right to bless His own — a people already His by the blood of the lamb (Exodus 12)? Would Satan dare to frustrate the counsels of Divine love and power? If God be for us, who can be against us? was gloriously answered on that ever memorable night. No doubt Pharaoh anticipated that God had now forsaken His people, and that his gods would yet triumph, for “Pharaoh will say of the children of Israel, They are entangled in the land, the wilderness hath shut them in.”

To all appearance the doom of the people was settled, as the only way of escape was the valley through which they had passed, and that was now being rapidly occupied with the chosen chariots of Egypt, probably the king’s own bodyguards, and all the chariots of Egypt. God would teach His people the meaning and reality of that precious word “salvation,” for the first time expounded in the Word of God; moreover, it was to be “the salvation of Jehovah.” It was God acting on behalf of His people, bringing them to Himself. The word, therefore, of God to His people was “go forward,” and as by faith (Heb. 11:29) they pass on, the sea divides and recedes on either side. No wonder that the majesty of this event is again and again referred to in illustration of the mighty power of God (Psa. 66:5-7; Isa. 10:26). Think of a sea, at its deepest soundings fully 6000 feet, and miles broad at its narrowest parts, dividing in two, and leaving its bed as “firm” and “dry” as any ground ever trod upon, and its waters rising up on either side, forming perpendicular walls of great height. We are not astonished to find that the fame of this mighty act of Divine power preceded the people in their march through the desert to Canaan and filled their enemies with fear, as the harlot of Jericho lets us know, “For we have heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red sea for you, when ye came out of Egypt ... our hearts did melt” (Josh. 2:10-11).

The deliverance of the people is complete, the judgment of Egypt as thorough. Now Israel gathers on the eastern side of the Red Sea, standing every one in the full accomplished salvation of God; their enemies are gone forever, “there remained not so much as one of them” — ”Jehovah hath triumphed, His people are free.” The song of Moses celebrates in magnificent strains Jehovah’s victory, besides telling of wilderness grace and Canaan glory; while Miriam’s refrain, “Sing ye to the Lord, for He hath triumphed gloriously; the horse and his rider hath He thrown into the sea” (Exodus 15), makes up a scene of triumph rarely equalled, and certainly never excelled, in the blessed volume of inspiration itself.

It is ours, beloved Christian reader, to look back in adoring praise upon the cross and resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ as that by which we have been brought in peace to God, and eternally delivered from the power of Satan and the world. Our Red Sea is Romans 4:24-25, and our celebration of deliverance Romans 5:1-11.

Synagogue and the Sanhedrim

We can easily understand that on the carrying away of the Jews from Canaan, they would seek for some place where they could meet together, especially on the Sabbath day. The word synagogue may be said to be a Greek word untranslated. It is συναγωγή from σύν together, and ἄγω to bring. It was the place where the Jews met together.

On the return from the Captivity, such places were multiplied, being built wherever the Jews had a settled abode. The Jewish writers say that wherever ten Jews were located a synagogue was to be built. We learn from the New Testament that synagogues existed not only in Israel, for Paul, in his missionary journeys, found in many places buildings thus designated.

Where the Jews were located only for a time, temporary buildings were at times erected. Where no synagogue was built, a quiet, secluded spot was chosen, where the Jews could assemble. Paul found such a place at Philippi: he “went out of the city by a river side, where prayer was wont to be made” (Acts 16:13).

The explorers of Israel believe that they have found in several places, ruins of the Jews’ synagogues. By digging out the ruins the plans of the buildings were discovered, and all are declared to be uniform, and different from the plans of any church, temple, or mosque in Israel. “Two of the buildings had inscriptions in Hebrew over their main entrances: one in connection with a seven-branched candlestick, the other with figures of the paschal lamb.” (See Jerusalem”.)

Some of them at least could not have been mere plain buildings, for the ruins of columns have been found, and the pedestals of the columns are in their original positions, shewing that there were rows of columns in the interior. At Tel Hum, which is supposed to be identified with Capernaum, the ruins show the synagogue to have been 74 feet 9 inches long, by 56 feet 9 inches wide. Each synagogue had three entrances, and those found in Galilee had them on the south — it may be that they might look toward Jerusalem (see Dan. 6:10).

It is not so clear what was done in the synagogues on a Sabbath day in the time of our Lord. We learn from the speech of James at the council named in Acts 15 that in every city Moses had those that preached him, “being read in the synagogues every Sabbath day.” This may mean that Moses was announced by the reading of the law; or, if there was any one there to explain the law, it may have been expounded as well as read. In the above it says this was “of old time”; but this may not date farther back than the return from captivity.

From Acts 13:15 we learn that the prophets as well as the law were read. It is recorded that, at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, the law only was read, and when he forbad that, the prophets were read instead; but during the successes of the Maccabees the law was again read as well as the prophets, as we find was done at Antioch.

We learn also that there, after the reading of the Scriptures, the rulers of the synagogue sent to Paul and those with him, saying, “Ye men and brethren, if ye have any word of exhortation for the people, say on.” Apparently Paul was in no conspicuous place (see Matt. 23:6), for the rulers sent to him, and when he began to speak he “beckoned” or made a sign to the people. The rulers may have had some tidings of Paul that led them to invite him to speak to the people.

In Luke 4:16, we find our Lord resorting to the synagogue on the Sabbath day, “as His custom was”; and there He stood up to read. The prophet Isaiah was given to Him. He read a portion, rolled up the book, gave it to the attendant, and sat down. All eyes were fixed on Him, and He expounded unto them the scripture He had read. This was at Nazareth, “where He had been brought up,” where He was known. We do not read that He was invited by the ruler to speak; but perhaps handing Him the roll of Isaiah implied this.

In Matthew 4:23 we learn that “Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues,” and in John 18, when before the high priest, the Lord said, “I ever taught in the synagogue, and in the temple, whither the Jews always resort” (verse 20).

From the above there appears to have been freedom for Him to address the people after the reading of the law and the prophets in the synagogues; in the temple the teaching may have been in a more private manner by His speaking to a group of hearers.

We find from Matthew 6:2 That there were collections or alms-giving in the synagogues, as we know from other scriptures that there was “a treasury” in the temple, where money was given.

We also learn from Matthew 6:5 that prayers were offered in the synagogues; but its being done by anyone to draw attention to himself as a devout person is condemned. Whether there was public prayer, or whether each one carried on his own devotions, is not clear.

From the Gospel of John we learn that being at liberty to attend the synagogue was a sign of communion among the Jews. In chapter 9:22 we read that “the Jews” had agreed that if any man did confess that Jesus was the Christ he should be put out of the synagogue. (See also ch. 16:2.) This operated with some of the rulers who believed on Him; they did not confess Him, lest they should be put out of the synagogue (ch. 12:42). The man who had been born blind, and who confessed Christ, was accordingly “cast out,” or excommunicated. Happily he was met by the Lord, who further revealed Himself to him as the Son of God, which called forth, “Lord, I believe. And he worshipped Him.”

Scripture also teaches us that persons were tried in the synagogues — doubtless by the Sanhedrim, or persons in authority, and punishments were inflicted therein. Our Lord said, “In the synagogues ye shall be beaten” (Mark 13:9). Paul himself confessed to having beaten in every synagogue those that believed on the Lord (Acts 22:19). Yea, punished them oft in every synagogue (ch. 26:11).

Coupled with the above, we find that Saul, when persecuting the church, proceeded on his way to Damascus, armed with letters to the synagogue, so that these places became the centers of opposition to Christ and for carrying on the persecution of His people. They thus became solemn and striking emblems of some who said they were Jews but were not, but were “the synagogue of Satan” (Rev. 2:9; 3:9).

It is not clear who exercised authority in the synagogues. In some places we read of “the ruler,” and in others, “the chief ruler” (though the Greek word is the same: Luke 13:14; Acts 18:8,17), and in other places it is “rulers” (Mark 5:22; Acts 13:15); so that there may have been more than one in some places. In each synagogue there were no doubt “elders” associated with the ruler (Luke 7:3) in their judicial matters, and in excommunications.

We read of another officer in Luke 4:20, called “the minister,” or “attendant,” who handed the rolls to those who read. Such had the care of the manuscripts.

Of the buildings themselves we know nothing, except what can be gathered from the ruins, as stated above. Of more modern synagogues, it has been stated that the worshippers as they entered had their faces towards Jerusalem, which is the reverse of what has been supposed to have been discovered in Galilee. At the further end of the building was the ark or chest, in which was kept the law and other sacred books; near this was the place of honour (Matt. 23:6). In front of the ark was a lamp with branches, which was lit only on special occasions. A small lamp was kept continually alight, and others were brought by the worshippers. More in the center of the room was a railed platform on which the reader generally stood up to read, or sat to teach. The people were in front, the women on one side, and the men on the other, with a partition between them; boxes were placed at the doors for alms; and a notice board with the names of the “excommunicated.”

In some such a building — varied greatly, no doubt, both in size and grandeur — some of the Lord’s miracles were performed, and much of His teaching given. It was His custom, as we read, to visit the synagogues especially on the Sabbath-days, where He was sure to find a congregation, and where, no doubt, the most devout of the people would always be found.

At first the Christians had no other meeting-places. At Jerusalem we know they were continually in the temple (Acts 2:46). But at Ephesus, when Paul, after spending three months in “disputing and persuading the things concerning the kingdom of God,” and being met by opposition from those who believed not, he departed from them, and “separated the disciples.” Opposition from the Jews would naturally compel the disciples to meet by themselves, and thus become Christian assemblies, as we soon find was the case generally.

The Sanhedrim

This is a body of men often alluded to in the New Testament by the name of “the Council.” It is Sanhedrim in every place except Matthew 12:14 and Acts 25:12. It is traced by many to the “seventy men of the elders,” chosen to assist Moses in judicial matters, named in Numbers 11:16.

From the New Testament we gather that it was composed of the chief priests, elders, and scribes (Mark 15:1, etc.).

Matthew 5:21-22, throws some light upon the judicial courts among the Jews: “Whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of [or, be subject to] the judgment [κρίσις],” doubtless alluding to the local courts, which, according to Deuteronomy 16:18, were to be instituted in every city. According to the Rabbins it consisted of twenty-three members; but according to Josephus (Ant. iv. 8, 14) of seven men. They had power to try for murder and put the criminal to death, according to Matthew 5:21, until that power was taken away by the Romans.

No doubt these local courts were held in the synagogues; the passages we have referred to show that in the same place lesser punishments were inflicted.

The Lord, after shewing that now to be angry with a brother without a cause subjected a person to the same judgment, goes on to speak of a graver offence: one calling a brother “Raca” should be subject to the Sanhedrim, the larger council held at Jerusalem. This court also had at one time power to take life; and their usual mode of execution was by stoning — a much more agonizing death than by the sword.

A third offence subjected a person to “hell fire,” Gehenna: alluding to the valley of Hinnom, where the corpse of the malefactor was thrown, to be devoured by the worm or by fire.

Our Lord when arrested was brought before the Sanhedrim, which was assembled, though it was night. In the morning a full council was held, which proceeded to deliver Him to Pilate (Mark 15:1).

Peter and John were also brought before the Sanhedrim (Acts 4), but were released with threats. In chapter 5 Peter and those with him were again arrested, and after being beaten, were dismissed with a command not to speak in the name of Jesus.

In chapter 7 Stephen was brought before the Sanhedrim. By his speech before them “they were cut to the heart, and gnashed on him with their teeth. ... cast him out of the city, and stoned him,” notwithstanding that their authority to put to death had been taken from them.

In chapter 23 Paul is brought before the Sanhedrim. Ananias the high priest was no doubt presiding. The council was composed of both Pharisees and Sadducees, and the party spirit ran so high that Paul had no sooner said that he was a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee, and of the hope and resurrection of the dead he was called in question, than there was a great dissension, and the Pharisees said: “We find no evil in this man: but if a spirit or an angel hath spoken to him, let us not fight against God.” He had to be rescued by the soldiers lest he should be “pulled in pieces.” A sad picture of the highest tribunal of the rulers of Israel!

We also find that the Sanhedrim had fallen so low that they were parties to the plot to murder Paul; but God was watching over His devoted servant, and delivered him out of their hands. Alas for the people who were governed by such rulers!

Tabernacle: Its Materials, Vessels, and Coverings

The tabernacle was constructed by Divine command and according to Divine plan, and when set up in the wilderness became the center of the many thousands of Israel, and the meeting place between Jehovah and His people (Ex. 29:42-46). In it God dwelt, surrounded by His happy and redeemed people, and out of it He addressed them in strains of richest grace (Lev. 1:1). It is several times termed “the tabernacle of witness,” as eloquent in its teaching of heavenly and better things to come.

The tabernacle was set up in the wilderness on the first day of the first month of the second year of Israel’s departure from Egypt (Ex. 40:17); its flooring was the sand of the desert, unlike that of the temple, which was of pure gold, but the majesty of Jehovah abode thereon, and the glory of Jehovah filled it (Ex. 40:34). The tabernacle and all that pertained to it, even to the cords, pins, and tacks, was intended to teach of Christ, to shadow His work and priesthood, and to illustrate various relationships between God and His heavenly and earthly peoples. In its general arrangement and structure, down to the minutest detail recorded, all was planned and constructed by the Spirit of God (Ex. 31), who, many centuries afterward comments upon His own workmanship (Heb. 9:8). The tabernacle was made according to a pattern shown to Moses (Heb. 8:5), and served as a shadow of good things to come (Heb. 9:11); the patterns, too, of things in the heavens (Heb. 9:23-24), but it figured also the whole scene of creation (Heb. 3).

A Three Part Building

The building was divided into three parts, first, the innermost recess, into which the high priest alone could enter once a year, and only with incense and blood — Christ’s person and work. Here stood the ark, covered by the pure gold mercy-seat and supported by the golden, overshadowing cherubim, between which, Jehovah sat enthroned in Divine majesty and glory. This apartment is called “the holiest of all,” and “most holy,” and figures the immediate presence of God — the heaven of heavens. Second, the holy place divided from the “holiest” by the beautiful veil, and from the “court” by the hanging. Here rested the incense or golden altar, the gold-covered table of shewbread, and seven-branched golden candlestick. It was in this holy apartment where the priests daily worshipped and served, which represents the heavenly places, the scene of the church’s blessing; there we burn the fragrant incense in the presence of our God — the merits of Christ’s person and accomplished sacrifice; there, too, does the Holy Spirit exhibit the varied glories of Christ as the lamps shone upon the beautifully carved shaft of the candlestick, displaying its beauties; and there, too, do we feed upon Christ, as the priests did upon the shewbread. Third, we are now in the “outer court” where stood the brazen altar and the brazen laver filled with water. The former told its own tale of judgment; surely the ever burning fire, fed by continual sacrifice, impressively pointed to the “Lamb of God,” bearing sin’s judgment on the cross, and the value of which is eternally ascending to God; the brazen laver, on the other hand, which stood between the entrance to the holy place and the altar of burnt-offering, pointed to the necessity of God’s priests having clean hands to hold up, and clean feet wherewith to tread the courts of the Lord’s house, for both hands and feet were to be constantly cleansed in the laver. The vessels then in the outer court would express the ground, place, and means by which God could righteously meet any sinner coming out of the world, yes, and meet him too in richest grace.

Design with Two Purposes

The main design of the tabernacle was two-fold. First, as the scene and manifestation of God to man; and, secondly, as revealing the holy means by which man could be righteously and in grace presented to God. If this two-fold design in the construction of the tabernacle and in the enumeration of its vessels be borne in mind, it will sufficiently account for the singular omission of the laver in the description of the outer court (Ex. 27), and of the incense altar in the account given of the holy place (Ex. 25); both those vessels will be found fully described after the consecration of the priesthood (Ex. 30). Here we are furnished with a fine example of the perfection of Holy Scripture. From Exodus 25 till Exodus 27, we have God manifesting Himself to man through those wondrous types and shadows, hence the marked omission of certain vessels; but from Exodus 28 till Exodus 30, we have the priests, their holy garments, and the vessels previously omitted, as all these refer to the means of man’s approach to God.

The studies of the Christian reader on the subject of the tabernacle generally, and of its spiritual teachings, will be considerably facilitated by carefully noting the force of three expressions in Hebrews 9: “The tabernacle,” the “first tabernacle,” the “second” tabernacle. The first expression refers to the whole structure, as in first clause of Hebrews 9:2: “for there was a tabernacle made”; the second expression refers to the holy place, and the third to the most holy. Now, the first tabernacle, or holy place, the scene of constant service and worship, figures the whole Jewish economy, characterized by continual doing, yet unfinished service, and which necessarily kept man at a distance from God (Heb. 9:8-10).

Materials Used in the Construction of the Tabernacle, the Vessels, the Priests’ Garments, etc.

Exodus 35

1. GOLD — Divine glory; Divine righteousness; Divine nature of the Lord Jesus Christ.

2. SILVER — Jesus in the value of His person and work for the sinners’ redemption.

3. BRASS — Christ sustaining the judgment of God against sin.

4. BLUE — Heavenly character of the blessed Lord.

5. PURPLE — Royalty of Christ.

6. SCARLET — Earthly glory of Christ.

7. FINE LINEN — Spotless purity of the blessed One in His person and ways.

8. GOATS’ HAIR — Christ’s absolute separation from all outward evil and sin.

9. RAMS’ SKINS DYED RED — Life-and-death devotedness of Christ to God.

10. BADGERS’ SKINS — Absolute holiness of Jesus, repelling every form of outward evil.

11. SHITTIM WOOD — The holy humanity of our Lord Jesus.

12. OIL FOR THE LIGHT — The Spirit of God the efficient power of all true testimony.

13. SPICES FOR ANOINTING OIL, AND FOR SWEET INCENSE — The moral graces and perfections of Christ expressed in the energy of the Holy Spirit (the oil), and also in Christ’s intercession for believers.

14. ONYX STONES — The variegated glories of Christ.

15. STONES FOR THE EPHOD AND BREASTPLATE — Moral glories and beauties of Christ.

The Prominent Vessels, etc. of the Tabernacle

1. ARK, made of shittim wood, and covered all over with gold inside and outside, surmounted with a golden crown, and with its rings and staves — Highest type of Christ in the two-fold glory of His person as man (shittim wood), as Divine (gold) and now crowned with glory and honour, and His perfect adaptation to all our wilderness circumstances (the rings and staves).

2. ALTAR OF INCENSE, made of shittim wood, and overlaid with pure gold, with its rings and staves, and surrounded with a golden crown — Christ the holy meeting-place between God and the saint in respect to worship. By Him we offer the sacrifice of praise to God (Heb. 13:15). Crowned on high (Heb. 2:9) and seated in the highest place (Heb. 8:1), He presents the merits of His own glorious person and the infinite perfection of His own accomplished sacrifice before the face of God, and that too for us, who there act as kings and priests to God (Rev. 1:6). In yonder Man, “Who is set on the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the heavens,” my heart doth rest, in Him my affections delight; on Him I feed, and find present, full, and eternal satisfaction. As we gaze on Him, the heart is filled with worship, and we fill the holy place with songs of praise to Him who loved us and washed us from our sins in His own blood.

3. ALTAR OF JUDGMENT, made of shittim wood and overlaid with brass (copper) with its rings and staves, grating, etc. — Christ the righteous meeting-place between God and the sinner in respect to sin. Christ on the cross measuring the distance and the responsibility of sinner to God. There my need as a sinner is fully met, and my guilty conscience perfectly satisfied. The golden altar in the holy place is the expression of my nearness to God as a happy saint; the brazen altar in the court is the expression of distance from God and of the judgment due to the sinner.

4. BREASTPLATE of judgment, made of gold (divine), blue (heavenly), purple (royalty), scarlet (earthly glory), and of fine-twined linen (spotless humanity), with stones engraved (reflections of the glories of Christ) and set in the breastplate in gold enclosing (Divine securities) — Believers ever borne on the heart of Jesus before God in divine love and righteousness, and according to all that Christ is personally and officially.

5. CHERUBIM (plural) made out of the same piece of gold as the mercy-seat or lid of the ark, one on either side covering it with outstretched wings — Divine attributes judicially displayed, or the moral supports of Jehovah’s throne, as “justice and judgment” (Psa. 89:14).

6. CANDLESTICK, of pure gold, with beautifully carved shaft, and with its branches, bowls, knops, and flowers — The Holy Spirit’s perfect display of Christ in the exquisite and variegated glories of His person as the wondrous Light of a heavenly people.

7. GOLDEN BELLS AND POMEGRANATES, of blue, purple, and scarlet, hung alternately round the hem of the blue robe of the ephod worn by the High Priest in the presence of God — The “golden bells” set forth the testimony of the Holy Spirit to us as to the acceptance of Christ in all that He is, as now within the veil. The “golden pomegranates” sets forth the fruit Christ has gathered out of this scene, and which He now presents to God in all the glorious efficacy of His person. The “bells” are testimony to us; the “pomegranates” are fruit to God.

8. LAVER, of brass, with its foot also of brass and filled with water — The ability of Christ in meeting His people’s defilement, so as to keep them practically clean for priestly service and priestly worship. The water figures the Word of God (Eph. 5:26) as constantly applied to our walk, ways, words, thoughts, and actions.

9. MERCY SEAT, of pure gold; the golden cover of the ark — On this, and between the cherubim, rested the cloud — symbol of Jehovah’s presence. It was on the mercy seat, and thus before the eye of God, that the high priest sprinkled the blood once on the yearly atonement day, and before it seven times, as giving us a standing in the Divine presence. The mercy seat was also the trysting-place between God enthroned in Divine majesty and the people represented by the high priest, who entered with incense and blood. Christ is our mercy seat (Rom. 3:25).

10. TABLE OF SHEW-BREAD, made of shittim wood, overlaid with pure gold, surrounded with a golden crown, and shew-bread set before the Lord alway — Christ, now crowned with glory and honour in the double glory of His person as God and man, is the table; and Christ too the food set thereon, and all this He ever is before our God. He is our light — the candlestick; our food — the bread; and our object in worship — the golden altar: all these standing in the holy place. Is not Christ everything in these shadows?

11. VEIL of blue, purple, scarlet and fine-twined linen: with cherubim — We know from Hebrews 10:20, that the veil represents “His flesh.” His varied glories and judicial and governmental attributes all center in Him, Who is the man Christ Jesus.

The glory of Jehovah filled the Tabernacle (Ex. 40:34-38).

The glory of Jehovah filled the Temple (1 Kings 8:10-11).

The glory of Jehovah will occupy the Millennial Temple (Ezek. 43:1-5).

“To Him be glory in the church by Christ Jesus throughout all ages, world without end. Amen.”

Temples

The following are the temples mentioned in the Word of God:

Solomon’s Temple (1 Kings 8), was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in the year 588 B.C.

Zerubbabel’s Temple (Ezra 3; 6) was pillaged and dedicated to the heathen god, Jupiter, by Antiochus Epiphanes, in the years 168 and 170 B.C.

Herod’s Temple (John 2:20) was reconstructed and almost rebuilt in a style of surpassing magnificence; commenced in the year 17 B.C.

Antichrist’s Temple (2 Thess. 2:4) will be built by the Jews in unbelief when returned to their land (Isa. 18); the “Antichrist” and the “Beast,” i.e. head of the revived Roman Empire, will establish idolatrous worship in it.

Christ’s Millennial Temple (Ezek. 40) will be entirely new, and not on the site of the old one; it will be grand and capacious, according to Divine plan and measurement, and the glory of Jehovah will fully occupy it.

Time of Day

There are but few references to time in the New Testament. Our Lord said, “Are there not twelve hours in the day?” (John 11:9), which is equally applicable to our mode of reckoning from midnight to midnight, or to the Jewish method of calculating from sunset to sunset.

This latter method gave no fixed duration for a day, because sunset was always varying. Their shortest days (reckoning sixty minutes to an hour) would have had only about ten hours, and their longest about fourteen; so that some of their hours were of only fifty minutes’ duration, and others were as long as 70 minutes.

In order to ascertain what times are alluded to in the New Testament, it is usual to take a mean time of the above and suppose the sun to rise at six o’clock and to set at six o’clock. Then the third hour of the day would be our nine o’clock (am) their sixth hour, our twelve o’clock (noon): their ninth hour, our three o’clock (pm).

This would refer to all the hours of the day mentioned in the New Testament except in the Gospel of John. It is generally held that he wrote his Gospel much later than the other evangelists, even after the destruction of Jerusalem, and the scattering of the Jews. He also, unlike Matthew, had Gentiles and all in view. The translation of Aramaic names (John 1:38,41,42), the notice of customs (John 4:9), and of topography (John 5:2), would be in view of readers unacquainted with Israel. The use of the Roman rather than the Jewish mode of reckoning time is therefore what we might expect — reckoning the hours from midnight to midnight, as is now commonly done.

This at once meets the difficulty of John’s saying that the trial of our Lord was proceeding at the sixth hour, which does not at all agree with the other gospels; but if it means our six o’clock in the morning all difficulty is removed.

But if John used that mode of reckoning in this one place, it is reasonable to suppose that he used it in every place. Let us look at the other passages.

John 1:39: “They came and saw where he dwelt, and abode with him that day: it was about the tenth hour.” This would be our ten o’clock, and there is nothing in the passage inconsistent with this.

John 4:6-7: “Jesus therefore, being wearied with His journey, sat thus on the well: and it was about the sixth hour. There cometh a woman of Samaria to draw water.”

This has often been taken to be at noon, and the woman is supposed to have come at that unusual hour for drawing water, because of her desire to avoid meeting the other women. But the narrative gives no hint that her bad character was known: on the contrary, when she carried her message to the city it was at once responded to. We must notice also that noon was not a suitable hour for the disciples to have gone to buy food, nor for them to press our Lord to eat on their return: it was too late for their first meal, and much too early for their chief evening meal. There appears nothing to hinder our considering the time named to be our six o’clock in the evening.

John 4:52-53: “Then inquired he of them the hour when he began to amend. And they said unto him, Yesterday at the seventh hour the fever left him. So the father knew that it was at the same hour in the which Jesus said unto him, Thy son liveth.”

Cana is about twelve miles from Capernaum, and if one o’clock had been the hour when our Lord dismissed the father, would he not have reached home before night? But he did not meet his servants till the next day, which well agrees with the time being seven o’clock in the evening, too late to start for home.

These are all the definite hours named in the Gospel of John; we cannot see anything that makes it improbable that the common Roman mode of reckoning was employed in each case, and seems quite needful in John 19:14.

There is only one definite hour of the night mentioned in the New Testament: “the third hour of the night” in Acts 23:23. The expression was used by a Roman, but may have been our nine o’clock. The night was otherwise divided into watches, which were four in number, of three hours each, from sunset to sunrise. The second and third are named in Luke 12:38, and the fourth in Matthew 14:25. Apparently the same divisions are alluded to under the terms “at even, or at midnight, or at the cockcrowing, or in the morning” in Mark 13:35.

Tradition

The references to tradition in the Scriptures demand our attention. It is clear that the Lord when on earth had to encounter and to condemn the traditions held by the rulers.

That they held the traditions as binding is obvious. There “came to Jesus scribes and Pharisees, which were of Jerusalem, saying, Why do Thy disciples transgress the tradition of the elders? for they wash not their hands when they eat bread” (Matt. 15:1-2). The question is put in precisely the same way as if the disciples had broken the law.

It is pretended that much of the tradition was received by Moses on the mount; that it was not written down, but was committed orally to Joshua; that Joshua delivered it to seventy elders, and they committed it to the great synagogue; and these handed it down to the Rabbins. It is called in Scripture the tradition of the fathers as well as of the elders (1 Pet. 1:18).

Another part of the oral law, as it is called, are canons made by the learned heads of the Sanhedrim, explaining the law, and acting as ‘fences’ to prevent the law from being broken by ignorance or cunning.

This latter division was often added to, as occasion required. It was also often modified, when circumstances seemed to make its strictness impracticable.

Thus the oral law was not all equally binding, though it is often spoken of as if it were. That held to be handed down from Moses was called the Halacha, or ‘rule,’ and must be obeyed. The other part was called Hagada, or ‘what is said’; and, though to be received with the greatest respect, it often contains the judgments of learned Rabbins, differing widely one from another.

It is certain that this latter division has been largely added to since the time of the Lord on earth: how much of it then existed is not known.

Nor do we know what changes have taken place in the whole of this oral law since that date. For centuries it was not allowed to be written: it must be handed down by the memories of the learned. It is believed to have been first committed to writing in the last half of the fourth century. The first printed edition of the Babylonian Talmud in 1520-23, filled 12 vols. folio.

On looking at the oral law as contained in the Talmud or Mishna, one cannot but be struck with its minute detail and frivolous trifling; precisely as our Lord said to the scribes and Pharisees, “Ye blind guides, which strain at [or, out] a gnat, and swallow a camel” (Matt. 23:24).

Nor was their tradition simply minute detail, much of it also was folly, as the Lord explains respecting their traditions as to oaths (Matt. 23:16-22).

And some of it actually violated the law, as the Lord shews by their tradition as to the relation of children to parents. The law said, “Honour thy father and thy mother,” but they had a tradition that a son might say, “It is Corban,” respecting whatsoever his parents might be profited by him; and he would not be suffered to do anything more for father or mother. Thus they made the commandment of God of no effect by their tradition (Matt. 15:3-6; Mark 7:11) Corbin is a Hebrew word, and is very often translated in the Old Testament by ‘offering.’ It is a gift to God. The tradition allowed a child to say his property or income was dedicated to God, and he would then be free from helping his needy parents: as people now give their property to the church, instead of thinking of those who have a natural claim on them..

Surely the bringing in of tradition was a cunning work of Satan. It would have shocked the sensibilities of many a Jew to call in question any part of the law as given by Moses; and yet they were led to acknowledge that there was another law equally binding on them, which, in many ways, diverted their attention from the true law, occupied them with trivial details (as the washing before eating), corrupted their judgment, and in some things led them to break the law, which they were zealously professing to keep all the while.

Our Lord could not let such a state of things exist around Him without thoroughly exposing its folly and evil, and this He did with the most withering rebuke.

Paul has not hesitated to tell us that, when he was persecuting and wasting the church of God, he was more exceedingly zealous than others of the traditions of his fathers (Gal. 1:14).

Peter also, in writing to believing Jews scattered abroad, reminds them that they had been redeemed from their ‘vain conversation’ (or manner of life) received by tradition from their fathers (1 Peter 1:18).

It may interest the reader to know that the devout Jews of the present day still hold the oral law to be binding upon them. In 1845, because some of their brethren began to doubt of ‘the divinity of the oral law,’ which apparently they had never seen, ‘Eighteen Treatises from the Mishna’ were translated into English. (Sherwood, Gilbert, & Piper, London.) “There can be no doubt,” say the translators, “that the Israelite, who believes in the divinity of an oral law — who thinks the salvation of his soul depends on such belief — but to whom the Mishna in the Hebrew is a sealed book — there can be no doubt that to such a man, if he be rational as well as pious, the present translation must be highly acceptable, as mere belief in the contents of a book not understood can confer no claim to heavenly reward. ... We find the holy pages of the Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Hagiography [sacred writings] open for his instruction, comfort, and consolation; and the same free access should be given to pages containing so large a portion of the oral law, which also claims a divine origin.”

But a Jew would perhaps retort that ‘tradition’ is also held among Christians, and is indeed enforced in the New Testament.

We do read that the apostle Paul, writing to the Thessalonians, said, “Brethren, stand fast, and hold the traditions which ye have been taught, whether by word, or our epistle.” And they were to withdraw from every brother that walked disorderly and not after the tradition which had been received from them (2 Thess. 2:15; 3:6).

Paul also instructed Timothy: “The things that thou hast heard of me among many witnesses, the same commit thou to faithful men, who shall be able to teach others also” (2 Tim. 2:2).

When these things were written, the Word of God was not completed; and the epistles that had been written were in manuscript, and perhaps not more than one copy of each existed at any of the assemblies, so that the saints were taught the Scriptures by hearing them read, and not by reading them. Paul, in more than one place, enjoins that the epistles should be read to the assemblies (Col. 4:16; 1 Thess. 5:27), and Timothy is exhorted to “give attendance to reading,” which, being placed with exhortation and doctrine (or teaching) seems to imply public reading.

When the Word of God was complete there was no further need of any tradition. It declares itself to be “profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness: that the man of God may be perfect, throughly furnished unto all good works” (2 Tim. 3:16-17). There is no room for any tradition: all that is needed is to be found in what is written — written by inspiration of God. A solemn warning is given against adding to or taking from “the words of the book of this prophecy” (Rev. 22:18-19), as there was also a warning against adding to or taking from the law (Deut. 4:2; see also Prov. 30:5-6). The Jews did this, and are still doing it to their own condemnation.

A corrupt church, alas! is also doing it to its own destruction. The second Nicene Council (A.D. 787) pronounced its anathema on any who should dare to reject the tradition of the church, be it oral or written. The Council of Trent also, in A.D. 1549, declared that the interpretation of Scripture had to be regulated by tradition. May God enable us to cling tenaciously to the Bible — all the Bible — the Bible only.

The Lord Hath Afflicted His Zion

The Lord hath afflicted His Zion

The city He loved so well,

Where He deign’d, like a couching lion,

In glory and strength to dwell.

And why hath Jehovah forsaken

The place of His ancient throne;

His Vine from the wilderness taken,

To flourish for Him alone?

Ah! deem not the Holy One cruel;

Had Solyma loved His will,

She had sparkled the costliest jewel,

The beauty of nations, still;

The Lord had been still her defender,

And she, the queen of the earth,

In holiness, freedom, and splendour,

Had gloried in Shiloh’s birth.

But she fell — and her crown of glory

Was struck from her rebel brow;

And with feet all wounded and gory,

She wanders in exile now.

Yet, sad one, distrust not our pity;

Though some may wring out thy tears,

We will weep for the Holy City,

And sorrow o’er former years.

Thou art stricken, dethroned, and lowly,

Bereft of a home on earth,

Yet still to our hearts thou art holy,

Thou land of Messiah’s birth!

He sprang from thy chosen of daughters,

His star o’er thy hills arose,

He bathed in thy soft-flowing waters,

And wept o’er thy coming woes.

He wept, who in secret yet lingers,

With yearnings of heart, o’er thee;

He, He, whom thy blood-sprinkled fingers

Once nailed to the cursed tree.

Dark deed! it was thine to afflict Him;

Yet longs His soul for the day

When thou, in the blood of thy victim,

Shalt wash thy deep stains away.

Thou land of the Cross, and the glory,

Whose brightness at last will shine

Afar through the earth — what a story

Of darkness and light is thine!

He died as a lamb: — as a lion,

He spares thee, nor can forget

His desolate Exile of Zion;

He waits to be gracious yet.

Sir Edward Denny, Bart.

Tree Lifespans

The age and durability of some trees are very remarkable, and are referred to by the grandest of the prophets (Isaiah) in illustration of the long ages of Jehovah’s earthly people in the millennium. Here is a list of a few well-known trees and their ages, extracted from Dr. Dunn’s valuable book on “Biblical Natural Science,” Vol 2, page 497:

TREE TYPE	YEARS	TREE TYPE	YEARS
Elm	335	Olive	700
Cypress	350	Cedar	800
Ivy	450	Oak	1500
Larch	576	Yew	2880
Chestnut	600	Baobab	(?) 5000
Some Palms	600-700

Untranslated Hebrew Words in the Book of Psalms

The following valuable paper is part of an article from The Present Testimony, Vol. 1, and which appeared many years ago. We trust this public acknowledgment of the source from whence it is taken will be accepted by the publishers and proprietor of The Testimony: —

1. Aijeleth-Shahar. Psalm 22 Title.

Aijeleth occurs only here and in Proverbs 5:19, “the loving hind”; and Jeremiah 14:5, “the hind.” But there are many kindred words which confirm this meaning.

Shahar occurs about twenty-three times; it means morning, e.g. “when the morning arose” Genesis 19:15; “the breaking of the day” 32:24; and “the day breaketh,” 32:26 etc.

The marginal reading for Aijeleth-Shahar, given by the translators is, “hind of the morning.”

Query? Was this the name of an instrument; or of a tune to which the Psalm was to be sung; or was it rather a name given to the Psalm on account of its subject?

2. Alamoth occurs in 1 Chronicles 15:20, “with psalteries on Alamoth”; Psalm 46 title, “A song upon Alamoth.”

The same word Alamoth (which is only the plural of the word commonly used for Virgin, as Isaiah 7:14, “a virgin shall conceive,”), is, however, found, Psalm 68:25, “the damsels playing,” Song of Solomon 1:3, “The virgins love thee”; Song of Solomon 6:8, “Virgins without number.”

“For the Virgins” (i.e. virgin voices) makes good sense, and accords with modern singing: as we say, “for boys’ voices.” It may, however, be the name of an instrument, or of a tune.

3. Al-taschith occurs in the titles of Psalms 57, 58, 59, and 75.

Al means not, and Taschith, destroy, as the translator’s margin reads “Destroy not.”

Observation must decide whether this was connected with the subject of the Psalms, or whether it was the name of a tune.

4. Degrees. Though Anglicized songs of Degrees in Psalms 120-134, a few words may not be amiss, inasmuch as “Degrees” is nearly as unintelligible to some as would Mangaloth be.

The same word is used for the steps of an altar (Exodus 20:26), steps of a throne (1 Kings 10:19); the stairs (2 Kings 9:13); the degrees of a sun-dial (2 Kings 20:9); a man of high degree (1 Chronicles 17:17); for a journey, “began to go up” (Ezra 7:9); the things which come into your mind (Ezekiel 11:5); he that buildeth his stories in the heaven (marg. ascensions or spheres) (Amos 9:6). The word from which it is derived means, simply, to go up — ascend.

Luther renders it, “in the higher choir,” higher, either as to position in which placed, or, perhaps, tone of voice.

Some have supposed these songs were sung on the steps of the temple: so the LXX, and Vulgate.

To my own mind, there is an eternal evidence in them, of their being written, in grace, for the times when, thrice in the year, the males were to go up from their homes and appear before the Lord. A few of them may also have reference to such goings up as Ezra’s from captivity.

5. Gittith. Psalms 8, 81, and 84.

The word Gath, winepress, is by most connected with this word, as the inhabitants of Gath were called Gittites.

Whether the vat; or Gath, the town, or an instrument of the name; or a tune is referred to; Query?

Someone suggests that they are all joyous songs, suited to be sung on such an occasion as a harvest-home, or a vintage.

6. Higgaion. Thus once rendered in Psalm 9:16. It occurs in three other places: — ”and the meditation of my heart” (Psa. 19:14); “harp with a solemn-sound” (Psa. 92:3); “and their device against me” (Lam. 3:62).

The humming sound of a harp struck, is supposed to correspond to the indistinct thoughts of musing; or the device against one who is hated; for the device, in this case, tells, but indistinctly the hatred within.

I do not see why meditation, or solemn-sound or device might not have been put for Higgaion, and the verse anglicized with the addition of some words in italics, as (this was their) meditation, or device, or a solemn-sound, (this).

7. Jonath-Elem-Rechokim is only found in the title of Psalm 56.

Jonah means dove, as in Genesis 8:8,9,10,11,12; or pigeon, as in Leviticus 1:14.

Elem means bound; the verb is frequently used to mark silence; as, I was dumb (Psa. 39:3,10): but it is applicable to any binding: as Genesis 37:7, binding sheaves.

The word Elem only occurs here, where it is commonly said to mean silence, and in Psalm 58:1, where it is rendered “Do ye indeed speak righteousness, O congregation?” (i.e. mass of persons bound together).

Rechokim, in Hebrew, is a distinct word from Elem; though in English, sometimes printed as one with it. It is a participle of the verb translated “Be not far from me” (Psa. 22:11); see also Psalms 22:19; 35:22; 38:21; 71:12; 109:17; etc.

“The dove of silence (among) strangers” is a common literal translation.

The dove of — that which is bound — persons afar off — are its three representative terms in English. — Compare the Psalm itself.

8. Leannoth. See Mahalath.

9. Mahalath occurs alone Psalm 53.

The dictionary says, “meaning uncertain.” Why not, as others, sickness, or disease taking it as the common noun of the verb “thy father is sick” (Gen. 48:1); “when they were sick” (Psa. 35:13).

The 53rd Psalm is striking, concerning the diseased state of the nation, and its importance as a Psalm is seen in its being given a second time in the book, but slightly altered (see Psa. 14).

The word Mahalath also occurs with Leannoth, after it (Psa. 88), which may be the plural of the word rendered Wormwood (Deut. 29:18; Prov. 5:4; Jer. 9:15; 23:15), and Hemlock (Amos 6:12) — unless Leannoth be a proper name, concerning the sickness of Leannoth; concerning the disease of wormwood (i.e. the deadly, bitter disease), which would suit the Psalm.

The LXX. divided Leannoth into le the preposition to, and sing, respond to; and consider Mahalath either a proper name, of a tune, or instrument to sing on, or to Mahalath. I prefer the other.

10. Maschil. Translated in margin, “or giving instruction.”

There are thirteen of these Psalms, namely: — 32, 42, 44, 45, 52, 53, 54, 55, 74, 78, 88, 89, 142.

As the translators have given a rendering here, I say no more than, that their side readings (as found in King James’ Bible) are as authoritative as their text, and of far more value than modern “lit,” which are often worse than nonsense. As a whole, their translation is as wonderful as is the mercy which God has shown to this land, in connection with it, as above that of other lands.

11. The Michtam Psalms are 16, 56, 57, 58, 59, and 60.

I know no better rendering than the common one, a golden psalm. The word Michtam occurs nowhere else: but the word rendered, in gold of Ophir (Psa. 45:9); and golden wedge (Isa. 13:12) is a kindred word, and occurs nine times, as gold, and in no other sense.

12. Muth-labben. Psalm 9 title.

Muth (Psa. 48:14), “our guide unto death.”

La, for the; ben, son. “Concerning death for the Son.”

The LXX. concerning the secret things of the Son.

13. Neginah, of which Neginoth is the plural.

“I am their song” (Job 30:9), “song” (Psa. 69:12; 77:6; Isa. 38:20; Lam. 3:14), “music” (Lam. 5:14), “on my stringed instruments” (margin, neginoth) (Hab. 3:19), shows the meaning plainly enough. The verb is to strike the strings. Neginah occurs in Psalm 61 Title; Neginoth, Psalms 4, 6, 54, 55, 67, 76. Upon the stringed instrument, or upon the stringed instruments.

14. Nehiloth. Psalm 5.

The pipes, or flutes, as commonly derived from the verb, to pierce.

15. Selah occurs seventy times in the Psalms, and three times in Habakkuk.

All sorts of tortures have been inflicted on this word, to make it speak. Some take its three consonants as the first letters of three words, and render it as equivalent to our da cape, in music: let the musician return. But this is very unlike old Hebrew.

Gesenius says it is Silence, supposing it equivalent to the words, at rest, (Dan. 4:4); as if Shelah and Selah were the same. Though I desire to read with shoes off my feet (for the place is holy, and I dread conjectures), it might, according to kindred words, mean raising. And so silence, as the result of one’s rising from singing; for the idea of weighing is found in Lamentations 4:2; in a good sense comparable to gold: and also, in a bad sense, (Psa. 119:118), trodden down.

I observe that Selah is put often where a pause is natural, as after some peculiar statement: and thus, practically, I feel that it is pause, or silence, with Gesenius. More I cannot say.

16. Sheminith occurs 1 Chronicles 15:21; and in the titles of Psalms 6 and 12.

The translator’s margin gives, on the eighth. It is the common ordinal adjective for eight, and refers to strings of instruments.

Some render it Octave, as denoting that it is to be played an octave lower than it is written; so, I think, Gesenius. I prefer the margin.

Observe that in 1 Chronicles 15:20 and 21, Alamoth and Sheminith are in contra-position.

17. Shiggaion, Psalm 7, and Habakkuk 3:1, Shigionoth in the plural.

The verb is, to err, (Psa. 119:10,21,118); sin through ignorance (Lev. 4:13). A wandering ode — an ode of wandering.

Variable songs — songs with variations. But I prefer either of the former.

18. Shoshannim. The lilies, as in Song of Solomon 2:16; 4:5. Occurs in the titles of Psalms 45 and 69, and in Psalm 80 (in connection with Eduth).

Shushan-Eduth (Psa. 40) is the same word nearly, it occurs only 1 Kings 7:19, lily. Eduth is the common word for the testimony, in Exodus, etc. The lily is supposed to refer to an instrument, from its shape: so, I think, Calmet. Others connect it with the name of a song.

The word for upon, may just as well be rendered concerning to, etc.

	Aijeleth-Shahar	The hind of the morning
	Alamoth	Virginals
	Al-Taschith	Destroy not
	Degree	To go up — ascend
	Gittith	The wine-vat
	Higgaion	Meditation
	Jonah-Elem-Rechokim	The dove dumb (among) strangers
	Mahalath	Disease
	Mahalath Leannoth	Bitter disease
	Maschil	To instruct
	Michtam	Golden (psalm)
	Muth-Labben
	Neginah	A stringed instrument
	Neginoth	The stringed instruments
	Nehiloth	The pipes
	Selah	Pause
	Sheminith	Eight-stringed instrument
	Shiggaion	Wandering ode
	Shoshannim	The lilies
	Shushan	The lily
	Eduth	— — — of the Testimony

Weights, Measures and Coins

Weights

A Shekel weighed about ½ ounce, avoirdupois.

A Maneh weighed about 3 pounds 2 ounces, avoirdupois.

A Talent weighed about 93 pounds 12 ounces, avoirdupois.

A Gerah weighed about 11 grains.

A Bekah weighed about 110 grains.

These must only be regarded as an approximation to current weights. Authorities are not at all agreed.

Amongst the most ancient forms of commerce was that practiced by Abraham, who bought the field of Ephron, containing the cave of Machpelah, for a burying-place for himself and family, for four hundred shekels of silver, estimated according to weight; not necessarily of one size. Buying and selling by weight, and not by current money, is still extensively practiced in certain parts of the world.

Measures of Lengths

A Cubit (common) about 18 inches; holy cubit, about 21 inches.

A Span, about 10 inches.

A Hand-breadth, about 3½ inches.

A Fathom, about 6½ feet.

A Measuring Reed, about 11 feet.

A Measuring Line, about 146 feet.

A Stadium or Furlong, about 1/8th of a mile.

A Sabbath day’s journey, considerably less than a mile.

An ordinary day’s journey, about 33 miles.

An Eastern Mile, about 400 paces (a pace about 5 feet) more than our mile.

Measures of Liquids

The Log, nearly 1 pint.

The Hin, nearly 10 pints.

The Bath, nearly 7½ gallons, or 60 pints.

The Homer or Cor, about 75 gallons, or 600 pints.

The Firkin, nearly 7½ gallons.

Measures of Dry Goods

The Cab, about 2 pints.

The Omer, about 6 pints.

The Seah or Measure, about 20 pints.

The Ephah, about 60 pints.

The Homer, about 8 bushels.

The Tenth-deal was the tenth part of an Ephah.

The Choenix was the daily allowance for a Roman slave. In Revelation 6:6, it implies great scarcity, if not a time of positive want and famine.

Coins

English Money Value

We would repeat the warning already given not to place implicit confidence in these tables; the whole subject is one of confessed difficulty to Biblical authorities on these matters.

Bible Subjects

Table of Contents

Alexandria

Animals

Apostles' Labors -Traditional Account

Apostolic Fathers and Their Writings

Apparent Discrepancies

Babylon

Bible Notes

Blessings of Moses

Botany of the Bible

Creation and Geology

Divine Names and Titles

Feasts of Jehovah

Holy Bible

Holy Land

Holy Land - Physical Features

Idols and Idol Worship

Inspiration

Jerusalem

Edom

Judges of Israel

Kingdom of Heaven, Kingdom of God and the Church

Measures of Capacity

Miracles

Moabite Stone

Money

Months and Seasons

Nations Identified in Genesis 10

Noah's Descendants

Numbers

Offerings - Synoptical View

Offerings

Offices and Gifts in the Church

Quotations from the Old Testament in the New

Parables

Persons: Typical and Illustrative

Red Heifer - Wilderness Defilement

Seasons and Divisions of the Year

Sepulchers, Tombs, and Burials

Signs and Wonders in the Land of Egypt

Synagogue and the Sanhedrim

Tabernacle: Its Materials, Vessels, and Coverings

Temples

Time of Day

Tradition

The Lord Hath Afflicted His Zion

Tree Lifespans

Untranslated Hebrew Words in the Book of Psalms

Weights, Measures and Coins