Preface
REV. HENRY ALFORD, D. D.—The book of Acts was written about A. D. 63. Its genuineness has ever been recognized in the church. It is mentioned by EUSEBIUS (H. E., III., 25) among the accepted and inspired writings. It is first directly quoted in the Epistle of the Churches of Lyons and Vienne to those of Asia and Phrygia, A. D. 177; then repeatedly and expressly by IRENÆUS, CLEMENT of Alexandria, TERTULLIAN, and so onwards.—Smith's Dict. of the Bible, p. 23.
PROF. HUG.—The Acts of the Apostles and the Gospel of Luke constitute a whole, of which the latter is the first and the former the last part. In the Gospel he presents to us the history of Jesus, until, his ascension; in the Acts he again resumes the thread of the narrative, where he had dropped it in the first history. If we connect the beginning of Acts with the end of the Gospel, we evidently perceive that, in the latter, he postpones the circumstantial treatment of the ascension, to preserve it for the following work; and that he had already resolved upon the plan of its continuation in the Acts of the Apostles when he was finishing the Gospel.—Introd. to Acts, sect. 72.
Christ's Witnesses
His Own Place
PLATO.—The impure soul is carried by necessity to a place suited to it; but the soul that has passed through life with purity and moderation, having the gods for its fellow-travelers and guides, settles each in the place suited to it.—Phœdo., c. 57.
Jews Dwelling in All Countries
PHILO JUDÆUS.—To Caius Cæsar.... The holy city of Jerusalem, not merely as the metropolis of Judæa, but of many other regions, because of the colonies led out at different times from Judea; not only into neighboring countries, such as Egypt, Phenicia, Syria, and Cœlosyria; but also into those that are remote, such as Pamphilia, Cilicia, and the chief parts of Asia as far as Bithynia, and the innermost parts of Pontus: also into the regions of Europe, Thessaly, Bœotia, Macedonia, Ætolia, Attica, Argos, Corinth, and the principal parts of Peloponnesus. Not only the continents and provinces are full of Jewish. colonies, but the most celebrated isles also, Eubœa, Cyprus, and Crete, not to mention the countries beyond the Euphrates. All these are inhabited by Jews. Not only my native city entreats thy clemency, but other cities also, situated in. different parts of the world, Asia, Europe, Africa; both islands, sea-coasts, and inland countries.—Philonis Opera (Mongey Edit.), Vol. II., p. 587.
Prophetic Signs
The Gate Beautiful
JOSEPHUS.—Now, nine of the Temple gates were covered over with gold and silver, as were the jambs of their doors and their lintels: but there was one gate that was without the inward court of the holy house, which was of Corinthian brass, and greatly excelled those that were only covered over with silver and gold. The magnitudes of the other gates were equal one to another; but that of the Corinthian gate, which opened on the East over against the gate of the holy house itself, was much larger, for its height was fifty cubits, and its doors were forty cubits; and it was adorned after the most costly manner, as having much richer and thicker plates of silver and gold upon them than the other.—Jewish Wars, 5, 5, 3.
Annas and Caiaphas
Obedience to God before Men
SOCRATES.—I honor and love you, O Athenians; but I shall obey God rather than you; and as long as I breathe and am able, I shall not cease studying philosophy, and exhorting you, and warning every man I may meet.—Plat. Apol. Socr., c. 17.
All Things Common
ARISTOTLE. —The proverb that the property of friends is common, is right; for friendship consists in community: and to brothers and companions all things are common. —Eth., lib. viii., c. 9.
SENECA.—True friends have all things in common.—Epist., 48.
The Sadducees
Judas of Galilee
JOSEPHUS.—Yet was there one Judas, a Gaulonite, of a city whose name was Gamala, who taking with him Saddouk, a Pharisee, became zealous to draw them to a revolt, who both said that this taxation was no better than an introduction to slavery, and exhorted the nation to assert their liberty.— Antq., 18, I, I.
Circumcision
See Gen. 17
The Dearth
The King Who Knew Not Joseph
The Wisdom of Egypt
REV. T. S. MILLINGTON.—All ancient profane writers suppose Egypt to have been the seat of learning in the earliest ages.—Testimony of the Heathen, is. 535.
DIODORUS SICULUS.—Many wise and learned men among the Grecians journeyed into Egypt in ancient times to study the laws and sciences of that country. The Egyptian priests relate that Orpheus, Musæus, Melampus, Dædalus, Homer, Lycurgus, Solon, Plato, Pythagoras, and others, all came to Egypt: and they give proofs of their having been there.—Diod. Sic., lib. i., c. 96.
STRABO.—Heliopolis was anciently the principal residence of the priests, who studied philosophy and astronomy.—Strab., lib. xvii., c. 1.
The Burning Bush
The Golden Calf
The Dying Prayer
PLUTARCH.—When Phocion was about to suffer death, one of his friends asked him whether he had any commands for his son. "Yes," said he;" by all means tell him from me, to forget the ill-treatment I have had from the Athenians."—Phoc., c. 36.
And when he had said this, he fell asleep.
CALLIMACHUS.—
Beneath this tomb, in sacred sleep,
The virtuous Saon lies;
Ye passengers forbear to weep,
A good man never dies.
—Epigr., 10.
Roman Road to Gaza
PROF. H. B. TRISTRAM, LL. D., F. R. S.—The Romans, that national genius for road-making which has left its traces in the remotest parts of Europe, greatly increased the facilities for communication among the most rugged hills of Palestine. There was a chariot-road to Egypt, originally constructed, as is probable, by Solomon, and paved by the Romans, of which traces remain.—Nat. Hist. of Bible, p. 106.
Gaza, which is desert.
ARRIAN.—Gaza is a large and populous city situated on a high hill, and surrounded by a strong wall. It is the last inhabited place which travelers meet on their way from Phenicia to Egypt, and borders, upon a vast desert.—Exped. Alex., lib. ii., c. 26.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Gaza is remarkable for its continuous existence and importance from the very earliest times. It is still a place of very considerable size. The secret of this unbroken history is to be found in its situation. It lay on the road which must always have been the line of communication between the valley of the Nile and the whole region of Syria. " Those traveling towards Egypt naturally lay in here a stock of provisions and necessaries for the desert; while those coming from Egypt arrive at Gaza exhausted, and must of course supply themselves anew."—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 874.
Candace
PLINY.—A female, whose name was Candace, was said to rule over Meroe, in Ethiopia, that name having passed from queen to queen for many years.—Hist. Nat., lib. vi., c. 35.
Cities of Philistia
REV. W. L. BEVAN, M. A.—Azotus (anciently named Ashdod) was one of the five confederate cities of the Philistines, situated about thirty. miles from the southern frontier of Palestine, three from the Mediterranean Sea, and nearly midway between Gaza and Joppa. It stood on an elevation overlooking the plain, and the natural advantages of its position were improved by fortifications of great strength. It is now an insignificant village, with no memorials of its ancient importance, but is still called Esdud. —Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 171.
And passing through he preached in all the cities, till he came to Cæsarea.
REV. ALBERT BARNES.—These cities through which Philip passed were Joppa, Lydda, Askalon, Arimathea, etc., all lying along the coast of the Mediterranean. —Note, In loco.
JOSEPHUS.—Now upon his observation of a. place near the sea, which was very proper for containing a city, and was before called Strato's Tower, Herod set about getting a plan for a magnificent city there, and erected many edifices with great diligence all over it; and this of white stone. He also adorned it with most sumptuous palaces, and large edifices for containing the people; and, what was the greatest and most laborious work of all, he adorned it with a haven, that was always free from the waves of the sea. Its largeness was not less than the Pyræum at Athens, and had towards the city a double station for the ships, etc. This city he named Cœsarea, in honor of Caesar. It was 600 stadia (or about seventy miles) from Jerusalem.—Antq., 15, 9, 6.
Damascus
PROF. GEORGE RAWLINSON, M. A.—Damascus is one of the most ancient, and has at all times been one of the most important of the cities of Syria. It is situated (120 miles northeast of Jerusalem, and 190 southeast of Antioch) in a plain of vast size and of extreme fertility which lies east of the great chain of Anti-Libanus, on the edge of the desert. This plain is watered by the Barada, the "Abana” of Scripture. It is still a city of 150,000 inhabitants.—Smith's Dict. of the Bible, p. 530.
Saul's Conversion
DR. HOGG.—We turned into a wide, open road, and passing through a large unenclosed Christian cemetery, soon reached' the place, still highly venerated, of the apostle's miraculous conversion. The present track deviates from the straight line, leaving, a few yards to the right, the precise spot believed to be that where he “fell to the earth." This is evidently a portion of an ancient road, consisting entirely of firm embedded pebbles, which, having never been broken up, stands alone like the fragment of an elevated causeway. The sides have been gradually lowered by numerous pilgrims, who, in all ages, have sought the pebbles to preserve as relics.—Visit to Alex., Damasc and Jerus., 1835.
EURIPIDES.—Kick not against the pricks, or you will suffer for it. Agam., v. 1524.
PLAUTUS. —If you thump a goad with your fists, your own hands are hurt the most.— True., act I., sc. 2.
House of Ananias
DR. RICHARDSON. —The spot on which the house of Ananias stood is still pointed out to the traveler; it is situated among poor houses, near the Catholic Convent, and seems to be held in equal veneration by Turks and Christians, and is equally a place of prayer for both.—In Pict. Bible.
The Street Called Straight
Acts 9:1111And the Lord said unto him, Arise, and go into the street which is called Straight, and inquire in the house of Judas for one called Saul, of Tarsus: for, behold, he prayeth, (Acts 9:11).—And the Lord said unto him, Arise, and go into the street which is called Straight, and inquire, etc.
MAUNDRELL.—This morning we went to see the street called "Straight." It is about half a mile in length, running from east to west through the city. It being narrow, and the houses jutting out in several places on both sides, you cannot have a clear prospect of its length and straightness. In this street is shown the house of Judas with whom Paul lodged.—Journey, p. 133.
PROF. J. LESLIE PORTER, M. A.—The old city—the nucleus of Damascus—is oval in shape, and surrounded by a wall, the foundations of which are Roman, if not earlier, and the upper part a patchwork of all subsequent ages. Its greatest diameter is marked by the Straight Street, which is an English mile in length. At its east end is Bab Shurky, the " East Gate," a fine Roman portal, having a central and two side arches. This is the street along which Paul was led by the hand, and in which was " the house of Judas," where he lodged.—Giant Cities of Bashan, p. 355.
Tarsus
PROF. CHARLES ANTHON, LL. D.—Tarsus was a celebrated city of Cilicia, on the river Cydnus, not far from its mouth. According to Strabo, it was founded by Triptolemus and his Argive followers. It continued a flourishing city for a long period, and was celebrated as the seat of refinement and learning. It still survives, but only as the shadow of its former self. It is now called Tarsous, and is in subjection to Adana, an adjacent city.—Classical Dictionary.
Escape in a Basket
DR. JOHN KITTO.—The method of drawing up or letting down persons in baskets is still very much resorted to in the East, when danger is apprehended from the ordinary mode of ingress or egress. The Christians of Damascus fail not to point out the exact spot where the Apostle was let down.—Pict. Bib., In loco.
Lydda and Saron
Acts 9:32-3532And it came to pass, as Peter passed throughout all quarters, he came down also to the saints which dwelt at Lydda. 33And there he found a certain man named Eneas, which had kept his bed eight years, and was sick of the palsy. 34And Peter said unto him, Eneas, Jesus Christ maketh thee whole: arise, and make thy bed. And he arose immediately. 35And all that dwelt at Lydda and Saron saw him, and turned to the Lord. (Acts 9:32‑35).—And it came to pass as Peter passed through all quarters, he came down also to the saints which dwelt at Lydda. And there he found a certain man named Eneas, which had kept his bed eight years, and was sick of the palsy. And Peter said unto him, Eneas, Jesus Christ maketh thee whole arise and make thy bed. And he arose immediately. And all that dwelt at Lydda and Saron saw him, and turned to the Lord.
MR. GEORGE GROVE, Cryst. Pal.—Quite in accordance with these and other scattered indications of Scripture is the situation of the modern town, which exactly retains its name, and probably its position. Lidel, or Lŭdd, stands in the Merj, part of the great maritime plain, which anciently bore the name of "Sharon." It is nine miles from Joppa, and is the first town on the northernmost of the two roads between that place and Jerusalem. In A. D. 66, the city was burnt by Cestius Gallus, on his way from Cæsarea to Jerusalem.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 1701.
PROF. J. LESLIE PORTER, M. A.—Even now, though its glory is gone, Lydda has an imposing look. It is embowered in verdure. The village stands on a gentle eminence. We climbed to the top of the crumbling wall, and there sat down to read the story of Peter's visit to this place, The whole village was in full view, and the great plain around it. Peter was away on one of his missionary tours in the hill country of Samaria, “and He came down also to the saints which dwelt at Lydda." He came down through the defiles of those mountains, and across that broad rich plain of Sharon, or Saron, to this old town. The saints met him as he entered, and told him of the sufferings of poor paralytic Eneas; and the scene then enacted at his bedside was such as the people had never before witnessed.— Giant Cities of Bashan, p. 192.
Joppa
PROF. J. LESLIE PORTER, M. A.—The joyful news of the healing of Eneas soon found its way to Joppa, only ten miles distant; and then the mourning friends of the charitable Tabitha despatched quick messengers to tell Peter of her death, half hoping that even she might not be beyond the reach of his power. Peter delayed not, but set out across that western plain on another journey of mercy.—Giant Cities of Bashan, p. 193.
Italian Band
PROF. H. B. HACKETT, D. D., LL. D.—It is no longer questioned that the Roman cohorts were distinguished from each other as well as the legions, not by numbers only but by names. Five legions are known to have been called “Italian," and at least one cohort. One of Gruter's inscriptions speaks of a " Cohors militum Italicorum voluntaria, quæ est in Syria. "There was a class of soldiers in the Roman army who enlisted of their own accord, and were known as voluntarii in distinction from conscripts. It is supposed, therefore, with good reason, that there was such a cohort at Caesarea, at the time to which Luke's narrative refers, and that it was called Italian because it consisted of native Italians; whereas the other cohorts in Palestine were levied, for the most Part, from the country itself. And as Cæsarea was the residence of the Roman procurator, it was important that he should have there a body of troops on whose-fidelity he could rely. We may add that, if the soldiers who composed this legion were Italians, no doubt Cornelius himself who commanded them was an Italian. —Smith' s Dict. of Bible, p. 118 r.
House of Simon the Tanner
EDWARD SALUSBURY FFOULKES, M. A.—Joppa (now Yâffa) is a town on the southwest coast of Palestine, the port of Jerusalem in the days of Solomon, as it has been ever since.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 1453
PROF. A. P. STANLEY, D. D.—One of the few localities which can claim to represent an historical scene of the New Testament is the site of the house of Simon the tanner, at Jaffa or Joppa. The house itself is a comparatively modern building, occupied by Muslims, and regarded by them as sacred. Its claims are remarkably confirmed by the circumstances of the situation. The house is close " on the sea-shore; " the waves beat against the low wall of its court-yard. In the court-yard is a spring of fresh water, such as must always have been needed for the purposes of tanning, and which, though now no longer so used, is authentically reported to have been so used, in a tradition, which describes the premises to have been long employed as a tannery.—Sinai and Palestine, ". 269.
PROF. J. L. PORTER, M. A.—I landed at Joppa, a bustling town of 5,000 inhabitants, beautifully situated on the western slope of a hill, looking down into the blue waters of the Mediterranean. Guided by a young Jew I went at once to " the house of Simon the tanner." The house is modern, but it probably occupies the old site. It stands by " the sea-side; and from its roof—flat now as in ancient times—I looked out on the same boundless sea on which the apostle must have looked when " he went up upon the housetop 'to pray." The hour too was the same—" the sixth hour," or noon. There was Something deeply impressive in being thus brought as it were into immediate connection with that wondrous vision which the Lord employed as a key to open the Gentile world to Christ's Gospel.— Giant Cities of Basilan, p. 229.
Antioch in Syria
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Antioch in Syria was the capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and afterward the residence of the Roman governors of the province which bore the same name. This metropolis was situated west of the chain of Lebanon, where the Orontes breaks through the mountains. It stood at a bend of the river, partly on an island, partly on the level which forms the left bank, and partly on the steep and craggy ascent of Mount Silpius. Antioch was founded in the year 300 B. C. by Seleucus Nicator. It grew under the successive Seleucid kings, till it became a city of great extent and remarkable beauty. The early Roman emperors raised, there some large and important structures, such as aqueducts, amphitheaters, and baths. Herod the Great contributed a road and a colonnade. Jews were settled there from the first in large' numbers, and were allowed to have the same political privileges with the Greeks. The modern name of the place is Antakia, and which is a shrunken and miserable place. Some of the walls have been shattered by earthquakes; a gateway remains which still bears the name of St. Paul.—Smith's Dict. of the Bible, p. 113.
And the disciples were called Christians first in Antioch.
J. S. HOWSON.—"Christians" was the name which naturally found its place in the reproachful language of their enemies. In the first instance, we have every reason to believe that it was a term of ridicule and derision. And it is remarkable that the people of Antioch were notorious for inventing names of derision, and for turning their wit into the channels of ridicule. Apollonius of Tyana was driven out of the city by their insults, and sailed away (like St. Paul) from Seleucia to Cyprus.—Con. and Haw's. Life of Paul, Vol. I., p. 119.
Famine in the Days of Claudius
REV. ALBERT BARNES.—Claudius Cæsar began his reign A. D. forty-one, and reigned thirteen years. During his reign no less than four different famines are mentioned by ancient writers. The first happened at Rome; and occurred in the first or second year of the, reign of Claudius. It is mentioned by Dio, whose words are these: " There being a great famine, Claudius not only took care for a present supply, but provided also for the time to come." (Dio., lib. 60.) A second famine is mentioned as having been particularly severe in Greece. Of this famine Eusebius speaks in his Chronicon, p. 204: " There was a great famine in Greece, in which a modius of wheat (about half a bushel) was sold for six drachms." This occurred in the ninth year of Claudius. In the latter part of his reign, A. D. 51, there was another famine at Rome, mentioned by Suetonius (Claud., c. 18), and by Tacitus (Ann. XII., 43). Of this Tacitus says, that it was so severe, that it was deemed to be a divine judgment. A fourth famine is mentioned as having occurred particularly in Judea. This is described by Josephus (Ant. 20, 2, 5). "A famine," says he, "did oppress them at the time (in the time of Claudius); and many people died for the want of what was necessary to procure food withal. Queen Helena sent some of her servants to Alexandria, with money to buy a great quantity of corn, and others of them to Cyprus to bring a cargo of dried figs." This famine is described as having continued under two procurators of Judea, Tiberias Alexander and Cassius. Fadus. This famine continued during the fifth, sixth, and seventh years of the reign of Claudius, and to this doubtless the sacred writer refers in Acts 11:2828And there stood up one of them named Agabus, and signified by the Spirit that there should be great dearth throughout all the world: which came to pass in the days of Claudius Caesar. (Acts 11:28). —Note, In loco.
Herod's Persecution
REV. ALBERT BARNES.—The king here named was Herod Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great; and the time, about A. D. 47.—Note, In loco.
DR. ADAM CLARKE.—" Killing with the sword” was the punishment which, according to the Talmud, was inflicted on those who drew away the people to any strange worship. (Sanhedr., fol. iii.) James was probably accused of this, and hence this punishment.—Note, In loco.
REV. ALBERT BARNES.—That Herod was ambitious, vain, and fawning, and sought, as his great principle, popularity, is attested by Josephus: “This king was by nature very beneficent, and liberal in his gifts, and very ambitious to please the people with such large donations; and he made himself very illustrious by many expensive presents he made them. He took delight in giving, and rejoiced in living with good reputation." (Ant. 19, 8, 3.)—Note, In loco.
VEGETIUS.—Quaternion is a military term, signifying a guard of four soldiers, two of whom were attached to the person of a prisoner, while the other two kept watch outside the door of his cell.—De Re Mil., III., S.
Peter's Deliverance
church unto God for him.
LUCANUS.—Perigrinus, who professed Christianity, being in prison, the brethren were assiduous in affording him every supply that could conduce to his comfort. By the first dawn of day, a number of old women, widows and young orphans, were seen hovering about, the prison; some of the principal persons even bribed the jailer, and passed whole nights with him. Likewise sumptuous meals were carried in to him, and they read their sacred books together.—De Mort. Pereg., c. 12.
LARDNER.—This was a common mode of securing prisoners among the Romans.—Credibility, Part I., c. 10, § 9.
DR. ADAM CLARKE. —In the East the gates are often plated over with iron, for greater security, to the present day. Pitts speaks of such in Algiers, and Pocoke at Antioch.—Note, In loco.
DR. ADAM CLARKE.—The Roman law condemned jailers, watchmen, etc., to suffer the same kind of punishment which should have been inflicted on the prisoner whom they allowed to escape.— Note, In loco.
Herod's Death
Acts 12:19-2319And when Herod had sought for him, and found him not, he examined the keepers, and commanded that they should be put to death. And he went down from Judea to Caesarea, and there abode. 20And Herod was highly displeased with them of Tyre and Sidon: but they came with one accord to him, and, having made Blastus the king's chamberlain their friend, desired peace; because their country was nourished by the king's country. 21And upon a set day Herod, arrayed in royal apparel, sat upon his throne, and made an oration unto them. 22And the people gave a shout, saying, It is the voice of a god, and not of a man. 23And immediately the angel of the Lord smote him, because he gave not God the glory: and he was eaten of worms, and gave up the ghost. (Acts 12:19‑23).—And Herod went down from Judea to Cæsarea, and there abode.... And upon a set day Herod, arrayed in royal apparel, sat upon his throne, and made an oration unto them. And the people gave a shout, saying, It is the voice of a god, and not of a man. And immediately the angel of the Lord smote him, because he gave not God the glory: and he was eaten of worms and gave up the ghost.
JOSEPHUS.—Now when Agrippa had reigned three years, over all Judea, he came to the city Cæsarea, which was formerly called Strato's Tower; and there he exhibited shows in honor of Caesar, upon his being informed that there was a certain festival celebrated to make vows for his safety. At which festival a great multitude was gotten together of the principal persons, and such as were of dignity through his province. On the second day of which shows, he put on a garment made wholly of silver, and of a contexture truly wonderful, and came into the theater early in the morning; at which time the silver of 'his garment being illuminated by the first reflection of the sun's rays upon it, shone out after a surprising manner, and was so resplendent as to spread a horror over those that looked intently upon him; and presently his flatterers cried out, one from one place and another from another (though not for his good), that "he was a god;" and they added, "Be thou merciful to us; for although we have hitherto reverenced thee only as a man, yet shall we henceforth own thee as a superior to mortal nature." Upon this the king did neither rebuke them nor reject their impious flattery. But as he presently afterward 'looked up, he saw an owl sitting on a certain rope over his head, and immediately understood that this bird was the messenger of ill tidings, as it had once, been the messenger of good tidings to him; and fell into the deepest sorrow. A severe pain also arose in his belly, and began in a most violent manner. And when he had been quite worn out by the pain in his belly for five days, he departed this life, being in the fifty-fourth year of his age, and in the seventh year of his reign. —Antig., 19, 8, 2.
And the people gave a shout, saying, It is the voice of a god, and not of a man.
HOMER.—Thoas, who reigned in Ætolia, was honored by his people as a god. —Iliad, XIII., 218.
MAXIMUS TYRIUS.—The city venerates the king, when he approaches, like a god.—Diss., 16.
And immediately the angel of the Lord smote him, because he gave not God the glory. TACITUS.—Tiberius would not accept the title of Father of his country, and sharply rebuked those who styled his doings divine, and himself Lord.—Ann., II., 87.
And he was eaten of worms, and gave up the ghost.
HERODOTUS.—Pheretime, having gratified her revenge on the Barceans, returned from Lybia to Egypt, and there perished miserably. Whilst alive her body was the victim of worms: thus it is that the gods punish those who have provoked their indignation.—Melpomene, c. 205.
PROF. CHARLES ROLLIN.—Antiochus Epiphanes... suffered inexpressible, torments. Worms crawled from every part of him; his flesh fell away piecemeal; and the stench was so great that it became intolerable to the whole army.—Ancient History, b. xix., c. 2, sec. 3.
The Church at Antioch
See chap. 11:5-26.
Seleucia and Cyprus
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Seleucia was practically the sea-port of Antioch. The river Orontes, after flowing past Antioch, entered the sea not far from Seleucia. The distance between the two places was about sixteen miles. The remains of Seleucia are numerous; but to us the most interesting are the two piers of the old harbor, which still bear the names of Paul and Barnabas. The masonry continues so good that the idea of clearing out and repairing the harbor has recently been entertained.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 2906.
IDEM.—These piers were unbroken when Saul and Barnabas came down to Seleucia, and the large stones fastened by their iron cramps protected the vessels in the harbor from the swell of the western sea. Here, in the midst of un-sympathizing sailors, the two missionary apostles, with their younger companion, stepped on board the vessel which was to convey them to Salamis.— Life and Epistles of St. Paul, Vol. I., p. 238.
And from thence they sailed to Cyprus.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—Cyprus—This is well known as a large and important Wand of the Mediterranean, about one hundred miles from the coast of Syria, and sixty miles from that of Cilicia. Once it had many cities, of which the principal were Salamis and Paphos, the former situated on the eastern coast, and the latter at the opposite extremity of the island. At present Cyprus exhibits but the ruin of its former glory and beauty.—Pict. Bible, In loco.
Sergius Paulus, the Deputy
DR. JOHN KITTO.—The word rendered "deputy" is anthypatos, or proconsul. This has been objected td by infidels as a mistake, under the impression that Cyprus was not such a province as gave the title of Proconsul to its governor. Lardner, however, ably vindicated the literal accuracy of the Evangelist, and produced a passage from Dion Cassius, in which this very title is given to the governor of Cyprus. The accuracy of Luke, even on this obscure and much-disputed point, has now been most conclusively established by the discovery of a coin belonging to Cyprus, struck in the reign of Claudius Caesar, who was emperor when Paul visited the island. Proclus, who was the next governor after Sergius Paulus, on this coin is entitled Proconsul. That Cyprus was a Proconsulate is also evident from an ancient inscription of Caligula's reign, in which Aquilius Scaura is called the “Proconsul of Cyprus."—Pict. Bible, In loco.
DR. J. S. HOWSON.—St. Luke's language is in the strictest sense correct.—Smith's Dict. of Bible.
Perga in Pamphilia
PLINY.—The towns of Pamphilia are Side, Aspendum, Pletenissum, and Perga.—Hist. Nat., V., 26.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—The province of Pamphilia was opposite the western extremity of Cyprus, where Paul embarked, and occupied a central portion of the southern coast of Asia Minor, having on the east Paul's native province of, Cilicia, and the small province of Lycia on the west. Perga was the chief town of Pamphilia. The apostle seems to have landed at Perga; and the Cestrus was in fact then navigable to the town, although the entrance to the river is now impassable, having been long closed by a bar. The site has been established. by Col. Leak as that where extensive remains of vaulted and ruined buildings were observed by General Kohler on the Cestrus west of Stavros.—Pict. Bible, In loco.
Antioch in Pisidia
DR. JOHN KITTO.—The province of Pisidia lay immediately behind Pamphilia, inland. Its capital, Antioch, is named as "Antioch in Pisidia," to distinguish it from other places of the same name in Syria, particularly that on the Orontes. Arundell discovered the site in 1833. Hamilton copied several. Latin inscriptions from the ruins, in one of which the only words not entirely effaced were ANTIOCHEÆ CÆSARI, which is an important circumstance, as Pliny states that Antioch in Pisidia was also called Caesarea.—Pict. Bible.
PLINY.—In the country of the Pisidæ, is the colony of Caesarea, also called Antiochia.—Nat. Hist., V., 24.
Iconium
DR. JOHN KITTO.—Iconium was the capital of the province of Lycaonia; and must have been a place of some importance from this circumstance, as well as from being mentioned by Pliny as the chief of fourteen cities in the Tetrarchy of Lycaonia. It was situated upon the lake Trogolis, 120 miles inland from the Mediterranean; and it still exists under the name of Konieh, as one of the very first inland cities of Asiatic Turkey.—Pict. Bible, In loco.
And so spake that a great multitude, both of the Jews and also of the Greeks, believed.
PROF. H. 13. HACKETT, D. D., LL. D.—This statement accords with the extent and variety of the ruins still found on the spot. It accords also with the geographical position of the place so well situated for trade and intercourse with other regions. The Greeks and Jews were the commercial factors of that period, as they are so largely at the present time; and hence the narrative mentions them as very numerous precisely here. The bulk of the population belonged to a different stock.— Smith's Dict. of the Bible, p. 1117.
Lycaonia
PLINY.—Lycaonia belongs to the jurisdiction of the Province of Asia, To this jurisdiction is also added a tetrarchy of Lycaonia in that part which joins Galatia. —Hist. Nat., V., 25.
DR. J. S. HOWSON.—Lystra was in the heart of the country. Further to the east was Derbe; at the western limit was Iconium, in the direction of Antioch in Pisidia. A good Roman road intersected the district along the line thus indicated. Lycaonia is for the most part a dreary plain, bare of trees, destitute of fresh water, and with several salt lakes.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 1701.
The Gods Among Men
Acts 14 11, 12.—And when the people saw what Paul had done, they lifted up their voices, saying in the speech of Lycaonia, The gods are come down to us in the likeness of men. And they called Barnabas Jupiter; and Paul, Mercurius, became he was the chief speaker.
REV. JOHN SAUL HOWSON, D. D.—It was a common belief among the ancients that the gods occasionally visited the earth' in the form of men. The expeditions of Jupiter were usually represented as attended by Mercury. He was the companion, the messenger, the servant of the gods. Thus the notion of these two Divinities appearing together in Lycaonia is quite in conformity with what we know of the popular belief. But their appearance in that particular district would be welcomed with more than usual credulity. Those who are acquainted with the literature of the Roman poets are familiar with a beautiful tradition of Jupiter and Mercury visiting in human form these very regions in the interior of Asia Minor. And it is not without a singular interest that we find one of Ovid's stories reappearing in the sacred pages of the Acts of the Apostles. In this instance, as in so many others, the Scripture in its incidental descriptions of the Heathen World, presents " undesigned coincidences " with the facts ascertained from Heathen memorials.—Life and Epistles of St. Paul, Vol. I., p. 190.
OVID.—I myself have seen the place: for Pittheus sent me into the Phrygian realms, formerly subject to his father Pelops. Near this is a lake, formerly habitable land, but now a collection of waters, the resort of cormorants and coots that delight in fens. Hither came 'Jupiter in human shape. Mercury, too, the grandson of Atlas, the bearer of the mystic rod, putting off his wings, accompanied his father. They went to thousands of houses, begging admittance, and shelter, but found all the thousands locked against them. Yet one received them, small indeed, and thatched with straw and marshy reeds; yet in this homely cottage dwelt pious Baucis and Philemon, both in years.—Meta., VIII., 622.
And they called Paul Mercurius, because he was the chief speaker.
EURIPIDES. —I, Mercury, the messenger of Jove, greatest of the gods, am come to this land.— Ion, v. 4.
OVID.—Jupiter and his brother, who rules over the wide ocean, together with Mercury, were on their travels. Hyrieus caught sight of them. As soon as he could recover self-possession, he sacrificed the ox, the tiller of his farm, and roasted him on a large fire.—Fast., lib. v., v. 495-514.
IDEM.—The fairest victim must the powers appease; A purple fillet his broad brow adorns; With flowery garlands crown'd, and gilded horns.—Met., lib. xv.
Nature Witnessing for God
PROF. WILLIAM WHEWELL, M. A.—The agency of the Divine Being pervades every portion of the universe, producing all action and passion, all permanence and change.— IV. Bridgewater Treaties, p. 185.
DR. WILLIAM CARPENTER.—All our science is but an investigation of the mode in which the Creator acts; its highest laws are but expressions of the mode in which He manifests his agency to us: He is the efficient cause alike of the simplest and most minute, and of the most complicated and most majestic phenomena of the universe.—General and Comparative Physiology, p. 1080.
JOHN YOUNG, LL. D.—Strictly speaking, there is no agent in Nature but one, that is, the Creator. In the flowing river and the restless ocean—in the waving plain and the solitary flower—in the gentle and the stormy wind—in the falling rain and the noiseless dew—in the beams of light and the diffusion of heat-in the activities of inorganic substance and of vegetable and of animal matter, it is verily " The Supreme" we behold—" The Supreme" acting. In the spring time of the year, when the earth grows green, and sends up its wondrous life, and fields and woods and hills are clothed with beauty, it is " The Supreme" acting, we behold. When, again, the produce of the earth is cut down, and by-and-by is gathered up, a munificent provision for man and beast,—or when the snows of winter cover, and its frosts harden, the soil so lately clad with verdure and laden with abundance,—or when we think of the changing seasons of the year, produced by the revolutions of our Planet around the sun,—or when we turn to the myriads of planets, stars, suns and systems that replenish space, and reflect on their mighty
Attalia
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Revisiting Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch, Paul and Barnabas descended through the Pisidian mountains to the Plain of Pamphilia, in which was the city of Perga, from whence they traveled to Attalia. Attalia received its name from Attalus Philadelphus, who built it at the mouth of the Cestrus, that he might command the trade of Syria and Egypt. Its present name is Satalia. —.Life and Epists. of Paul, I., 200.
REV. ALBERT BARNES.—These places were directly on their route to Jerusalem. —Note, In loco.
God Omniscient
XENOPHON.—The gods who are eternal know all things that have been, all things that are, and all that shall happen in consequence of everything.—Cyrop., lib. i., c. 6.
Interdicted Food
LUCIAN.—The Christians were everywhere at his service, and let him want for nothing; but afterward having ruined himself with them, having been seen eating some food interdicted by their tenets, they refused to tolerate him any longer amongst them.—De Mort. Pereg., c. 16.
Provinces of Asia Minor
Acts 16:6-96Now when they had gone throughout Phrygia and the region of Galatia, and were forbidden of the Holy Ghost to preach the word in Asia, 7After they were come to Mysia, they assayed to go into Bithynia: but the Spirit suffered them not. 8And they passing by Mysia came down to Troas. 9And a vision appeared to Paul in the night; There stood a man of Macedonia, and prayed him, saying, Come over into Macedonia, and help us. (Acts 16:6‑9).—Now when they had gone throughout Phrygia and the region of Galatia, and were forbidden of the Holy Ghost to preach the word in Asia, after they were come to Mysia, they assayed to go into Bithynia: but the Spirit suffered them not. And they passing by Mysia came down to Troas. And a vision appeared to Paul in the night There stood a man of Macedonia, and prayed him, saying, Come over into Macedonia and help us.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—Phrygia was the name of a very large province of Asia Minor. Its boundaries differed greatly in different ages. Its principal cities were Apamea, the metropolis; Laodicea, the seat of one of the " seven churches" mentioned in Revelation; Colosse, the seat of another church to whom Paul addressed one of his epistles; etc. Galatia was another important province of Asia Minor, but not more than half as large as Phrygia; to the Christian church founded here Paul addressed the Epistle to the Galatians. Asia, as the term is here used, was another small province of this region. Mysia was a
Samothracia
DR. JOHN KITTO. —Samothracia is a small island in the Ægean Sea, on the direct course from Troas to Macedonia. It still retains its ancient name in the modified form of Samotraki.—Neapolis was a seaport of Edonis, a district of Macedonia, bordering on Thrace. It was a place of little note. It is mentioned by Pliny.—Pict. Bible.
Macedonian Colony
REV. THOMAS HARTWELL HORNE, B. D.—This passage, which has greatly exercised the ingenuity of critics and commentators, may, more correctly, be thus rendered: Philippi a city of the first part of Macedonia, or of Macedonia Prima. This is an instance of minute accuracy, which shows that the author of the Acts of the Apostles actually lived and wrote at that time. The province of Macedonia, it is well known, had undergone various changes, and had been divided into various portions! and particularly four, while under the Roman government. There are extant many medals of the First Province, or Macedonia Prima, mostly of silver, with the inscription MAKEDONON PROTES, or First Part of Macedonia, which confirm the accuracy of Luke, and at the same time show his attention to the minutest particulars. It is further worthy of remark, that the sacred historian terms Philippi a colony. By using the term kolonia (which was originally a Latin word, colonia), instead of the corresponding Greek word apoikia, he plainly intimates that it was a Roman colony, which the 21St verse certainly proves it to have been. And though the critics were for a long time puzzled to find any express mention of it as such, yet some coins have been discovered in which it is recorded under this character, particularly one, which explicitly states that Julius Cæsar himself bestowed the dignity and privileges of a colony on the city of Philippi, which were afterward confirmed and augmented by Augustus. This medal corroborates the character given to the city by Luke, and proves that it had been a colony for many years, though no author or historian but himself, whose writings have reached us, has mentioned it under that character.— Introduction, Vol. I., p. 90.
PROF. H. B. HACKETT, D. D., LL. D.—Traces of this Colonial rank of Philippi appear at the present time among the ruins on the ground. The traveler even at Neapolis, the seaport of the ancient city, sees around him Latin inscriptions on sarcophagi, tablets and fallen columns. Two of the epitaphs there contain the name of Claudius, the emperor who was on the throne when Paul passed through Neapolis to the "Colony" where he gathered his first church in Europe. —Smith' s Dict., p. 477.
PLINY.—The colony of Philippi is distant from Dyrrha-chirom three hundred and twenty miles.— Hist. Nat., lib. iv., c. 18.
Lydia
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The business which brought Lydia to Philippi was connected with the dyeing trade, which had flourished from a very early period, as we learn from Homer, in the neighborhood of Thyatira, and is permanently commemorated in inscriptions which relate to the " Guild of Dyers '? in that city, and incidentally give a singular confirmation of the veracity of St. Luke in his casual allusions.—Life and Epistles of St. Paul, Vol. I., p. 295
Pythoness
REV. THOMAS S. MILLINGTON.—The literal rendering is the spirit of a Python, which Plutarch says was in his day the name for a ventriloquist. This damsel appears to have uttered ambiguous prophecies after the manner of the Pythian Apollo; or of the Sibyls. The ancients were fully persuaded that the Sibyls were inspired by the gods.—Test. of the Heathen, p. 541.
DIODORUS SICULUS.—Daphne, the daughter of Tiresias the soothsayer, was not inferior to her father in the art of divination. Being endowed with a wonderful genius, she wrote a great number of oracles in different characters. Being often in an enthusiastic state of inspiration, she uttered many things that were prophetical, and was therefore called a Sibyl.—Diod. Sic., lib. iv., c. 66.
ARISTOTLE.—At Cumæ, on the coast of Italy, is shown the cave in which the Sibyl uttered her prophecies.—De Mir. Ausc.
STRABO.—Erythræ was the native place of the Sibyl, an ancient inspired prophetess.—Strabo, lib. xiv., c. I.
The Roman Law and Religion
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The letter of the Roman Law, even under the Republic, was opposed to the introduction of foreign religions; and though exceptions were allowed, as in the case of the Jews themselves, yet the spirit of the Law entirely condemned such changes in worship as were likely to un-settle the minds of the citizens, or to produce any tumultuous uproar (Liv. xxxix., 16).—Life and Epistles of St. Paul, I., 302.
CICERO.—No person shall have any separate gods, or new ones; nor shall he privately worship any strange gods, unless they be publicly allowed.—De Legibus, II., 8.
SERVIUS.—Care was taken among the Athenians and the Romans, that no one should introduce new religions. It was on this account that the Jews were banished from the city.—On Virgil, Æn. VIII., 187.
LIVY.—The lictors, being sent to inflict punishment, beat them with rods, being naked.—Liv., II., 5.
CICERO.—He commanded the man to be seized, and to be stripped naked in the midst of the forum, and to be bound, and rods to be brought.—Cont. Verres.
SENECA.—Go, lictors: strip off their garments: let them be scourged—Quoted by Howson.
The Inner Prison
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The " inner prisons " were pestilential cells, damp and cold, from which the light was excluded, and where the chains rusted on the limbs of the prisoners. One such place may be seen to this day on the slope of the capitol at Rome. It is known to the readers of Cicero and Sallust by the name Tullianum. This is a type of the dungeons in the provinces; and we find the very name applied, in one instance, to a dungeon in the province of Macedonia.— Life and Epistles of St. Paul, I., p. 305.
ARISTOPHANES.—Only as many of them as are fastened to the stocks are zealous. -Pax., v. 478.
IDEM.—How I will fasten you in the stocks!—Equit., v. 367.
EUSEBIUS.—Great were the sufferings which Origen endured under an iron collar, and in the deepest recesses of the prison, when, for many days, he was extended and stretched to the distance of four holes on the rack.—Hist. Bed., VI., 39.
The Jailer's Terror
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Awakened in a moment by the earthquake, his first thought was of his prisoners, "they being fled," aware that inevitable death awaited him, with the stern and desperate resignation of a Roman official, he resolved that suicide was better than disgrace, " and drew his sword." Philippi was famous in the annals of suicide.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, I., 301.
BISCOE.—By the Roman Law, the jailer was to undergo the same punishment which the malefactors who escaped by his negligence were to have suffered.—Bisc., p. 330
The Serjeants
PROF. H. B. HACKETT, D. D., LL. D.—" Serjeants," properly rod—bearers. They were the official attendants of the higher Roman magistrates, and executed their orders, especially for the arrest and punishment of criminals. In the provinces the lictors carried staves, not fasces, as at Rome. Luke speaks of the presence of rod-bearers only in his account of what took place at Philippi; and it is almost the only place in his narrative where he could rightly introduce them. Philippi being a Roman colony, unlike other Grecian cities, was governed after the Roman mode; its chief officers assumed the more honorary title of praetors, and in token of the Roman sovereignty, had rod-bearers or lictors as at Rome.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, .p. 2927.
The Magistrates Alarmed
Acts 16:37, 3837But Paul said unto them, They have beaten us openly uncondemned, being Romans, and have cast us into prison; and now do they thrust us out privily? nay verily; but let them come themselves and fetch us out. 38And the serjeants told these words unto the magistrates: and they feared, when they heard that they were Romans. (Acts 16:37‑38).—But Paul said unto them, They have beaten us openly uncondemned, being Romans, and have cast us into prison; and now do they thrust us out privily? Nay, verily; but let them come themselves and fetch us out. And the sergeants told these words unto the magistrates; and they feared, when they heard that they were Romans.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—In this matter the magistrates had violated three important laws, the infraction of which was in general treated with so much severity by the Roman Government, that these colonial magistrates had ample cause for the alarm with which they received the Apostle's message. I In punishing them without trial they had violated the law, which strictly forbade any citizen to be punished unheard. 2. They had also infringed the 'Valerian law, which forbade that any Roman Citizen should be bound. 3. They had acted against the Sempronian or Porcian law, which exempted a citizen from being punished with rods.
—Pict. Bib., In loco.
QUINTILIAN.—To bind a Roman citizen is a misdemeanor; to strike him is a crime, to kill 'him is next to parricide.—Quint., VIII., 4.
CICERO.—It is a transgression of the law to bind a Roman citizen: it is wickedness to scourge him.— In Verrem., Orat., V.
IDEM.—The Porcian Law has removed the rod from the body of every Roman citizen.
Orat. pro Rabirio.
DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSUS.—The punishment appointed for those who abrogated or transgressed the Valerian Law was death, and the confiscation of his property.—Ant. Rom., II.
Amphipolis, Apollonia and Thessalonica
PROF. H. B. HACKETT.—Amphipolis was a city of Macedonia, distant thirty three Roman miles from Philippi. Its site is now occupied by a village called Neokhorio, or " New Town."—Apollonia was another city of Macedonia, distant thirty Roman miles from Amphipolis, and thirty-seven from Thessalonica.— Thessalonica was still another city of the province of Macedonia. It received its name from Thessalonica, wife of Cassander and sister of Alexander the Great. Saloniki (its present name) is still the most important town of European Turkey next after Constantinople.—Smith's Dictionary of the Bible.
Chief Magistrates
Acts 17:5, 65But the Jews which believed not, moved with envy, took unto them certain lewd fellows of the baser sort, and gathered a company, and set all the city on an uproar, and assaulted the house of Jason, and sought to bring them out to the people. 6And when they found them not, they drew Jason and certain brethren unto the rulers of the city, crying, These that have turned the world upside down are come hither also; (Acts 17:5‑6).—But the Jews... took unto them certain lewd fellows of the baser sort.... They drew Jason and certain brethren unto the rulers of the city, crying, etc.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON. —We must recur, however, to the narrative in the Acts, for the purpose of noticing a singularly accurate illustration which it affords of the political constitution of Thessalonica. Not only is the demus mentioned (ton demon, Acts 17:55But the Jews which believed not, moved with envy, took unto them certain lewd fellows of the baser sort, and gathered a company, and set all the city on an uproar, and assaulted the house of Jason, and sought to bring them out to the people. (Acts 17:5)) in harmony with what has been said of its being a " free city," but the peculiar title, politarchs (xvii: 6), of the chief magistrates. This term occurs in no other writing; but it may be read to this day conspicuously on an arch of the early imperial times, which spans the main street of the city. From this inscription it would appear that the number of politarchs was seven.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 3232.
Another King
GROTIUS.—The Roman people, and after them the emperors, would not permit the name of king to be mentioned in any of the vanquished provinces, except by permission.—Quoted in Barnes' Notes.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—We obtain a deeper insight into the cause why the whole charge against Paul and Silas was brought forward with so much vehemence, and why it was so likely to produce an effect on the magistrates, if we bear in mind the fact, that the Jews were under the ban of the Roman authorities about this time, for having raised a tumult in the metropolis, at the instigation (as was alleged) of one Chrestus, or Christus (Suet. Claud. 25); and that they must have been glad, in the provincial cities, to be able to show their loyalty and gratify their malice, by throwing the odium off themselves upon a sect whose very name might be interpreted to imply a rebellion against the emperor.—Life and. Epists. of St. Paul, I., p. 332;
Berea
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON. —Berea was on the eastern slope of the Olympian range. It had many natural advantages, and is even now considered one of the most agreeable towns in Rumili. A few insignificant ruins of the Greek and Roman periods may yet be noticed.— Life and Epists. of St. Paul, I., 339.
Athens
PROF. CHARLES ANTHON, LL. D.—Athens, the celebrated capital of Attica, was founded, according to the common account, by Cecrops, B. C. 1550. In the time of Xenophon it is said to have contained 10,000 houses. From other ancient writers we learn that the extent of Athens was nearly equal to that of Rome within the walls of Servius. Perhaps not one single city in the world can boast, in the same space of time, of so large a number of illustricus citizens, as regarded either warlike operations or the walks of civil life. The Romans, in the more polished ages of their Republic, sent their youths to finish their education at Athens. Modern Athens, a few years ago, contained about 12,000 inhabitants. Classical Dictionary.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON. —It is no ordinary advantage that we possess a description of Athens under the Romans, by a celebrated traveler and antiquarian, Pausanias. Pausanias visited Athens about fifty years after St. Paul, when but comparatively few changes had taken place in it. The work of Pausanias will be our best guide to the discovery of what St. Paul saw. By following his route through the city, we shall be treading in the steps of the Apostle himself, and shall behold those very objects which excited his indignation and compassion.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, I., 352.
The Idolatry of Athens
Acts 17:1616Now while Paul waited for them at Athens, his spirit was stirred in him, when he saw the city wholly given to idolatry. (Acts 17:16).—Now while Paul' waited for them at Athens, his spirit was stirred in him, when he saw the city wholly given to idolatry—(in the ma; gin), full of idols.
PAUSANIAS. —The Athenians exceed all in their diligence about the gods. Paus., I., 24, § 3.
LUCIAN. —At Athens, on every side, there are altars, victims, temples, and festivals.—T. I. PromEth., p. 180.
LIVY. —Athens was full of the images of gods and men, adorned with every variety of material, and with all the skill of art —Liv., 45, 27.
PETRONIUS. —At Athens, it was easier to find a god than a man.—Sat., XVII.
JOSEPHUS. —All men say that the Athenians are the most religious of all the Grecians.— Cont. Ap., II., 12.
SOPHOCLES. —The city of Athens goes beyond all in worshipping and reverencing the gods.—Œdip. Colon., v. 1006.
The Market
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON. —The Market, Agora, was situated in the valley enclosed by the heights of Pnyx, Areopagus, and Acropolis. The Agora must not be conceived of as a great " market," like the bare spaces in many modern towns, where little attention has been paid to artistic decoration, but is rather to be compared to the beautiful squares of such Italian cities as Verona and Florence, where historical buildings have closed in the space within narrow limits, and sculpture has peopled it with impressive figures—the memorials of history. In the more palmy days, the Agora was the center of a glorious public life, where the orators and statesmen, the poets and the artists of Greece, found all the incentives of their noblest enthusiasm; and still continued to be the meeting-place of philosophy, of idleness, of conversation, and of business, when Athens' could only be proud of her recollections of the past.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, I., 353, 354.
Epicureans and Stoics
PROF. CHARLES ANTHON, LL. D.—Epicureans.—This sect of philosophers was so named from Epicurus, who was born 341 B. C. They denied that, the world was created by God, and that the gods exercised any care or providence over human affairs, and also the immortality of the soul. Against these positions of the sect, Paul directed his main argument, in proving that the world was created, and governed by God. Stoics.—These were a sect of philosophers, so named from the Greek Stoa, a porch, or portico, because Zeno, the founder of the sect, held his school and taught in a porch, in the city of Athens. Zeno was born 360 B. C. The doctrines of the sect were, that the universe was created by God; that all things were fixed by fate; that even God was under the dominion of fatal necessity; that the passions and affections were to be suppressed and restrained. They supposed that matter was eternal, and that God was either the animating principle or soul of the world, or that all things were a part of God. In their views of a future state they fluctuated much.—See Classical Dictionary, Arts. “Epicurus" and "Zeno."
REV. ALBERT BARNES.—Athens was distinguished among all the cities of Greece and the world, for the cultivation of a subtle and refined philosophy. This was their boast, and the object of their constant search and study.—Note, In loco.
Areopagus
Acts 17:1919And they took him, and brought him unto Areopagus, saying, May we know what this new doctrine, whereof thou speakest, is? (Acts 17:19).—And they took him, and brought him to Areopagus, saying, May we know what this new doctrine, whereof thou speakest, is?
DR. JOHN KITTO.—Areopagus.—This name (Areios Pagos) is the same which is rendered “Mars Hill " below, from Ares, a name of Mars, and 'Sagas, a hill or high station. Areopagus was an insulated precipitous rock, broken towards the south, but on the north side sloping gently down to the Temple of Theseus. It stood nearly in the center of Athens.—Pict. Bib. In loco.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON. —The place to which they took Paul was the summit of the hill of Areopagus, where the most awful court of judicature had sat from time immemorial, to pass sentence on the greatest criminals, and to decide the most solemn questions connected with religion. The judges sat in the open air, upon seats hewn out in the rock, on a platform, which was ascended by a flight of stone steps immediately from the Agora. On this spot a long series of awful causes, connected with crime and religion, had been determined, beginning with the legendary trial of Mars, which gave to the place its name of “Mars Hill." A Temple of the god was on the brow of the eminence; and an additional solemnity was given to the place by the sanctuary of the Furies, in a broken cleft of the rock, immediately below the judges' seat. Even in the political decay of Athens, this spot and this court were regarded by the people with superstitious reverence. It was a scene with which the dread recollections of centuries were associated. It was a place of silent awe in the midst of the gay and frivolous city. Those who withdrew to the Areopagus from the Agora, came, as it were, into the presence of a higher power. No place in Athens was so suitable for a discourse upon the mysteries of religion... The Athenians took the Apostle from the tumult of public discussion, to the place which was at once most convenient and most appropriate.— Life and Epists. of St. Paul, I., 374.
HERODOTUS. —There is a hill opposite the citadel at Athens, which the Athenians call the Hill of Mars, or Areopagus.—Urania, c. 52.
EURIPIDES.—There is at Athens, a certain Hill of Mars, where the gods first sate in judgment concerning blood, where savage Mars, in wrath for the impious nuptials of his daughter, slew Halirrothius, the son of the ruler of the ocean, where from that time there is a most pious and firm judgment for the gods.—Electr., v. 1258.
PLUTARCH. —Some of the philosophers held resolutely that there were no gods, and Euripides the tragedian signified as much in his writings, though he dared not openly proclaim his opinion for fear of the court of Areopagus.—De Placit. Philos., lib. i., c. 7.
LUCIAN. —Are you not afraid lest he shall commence a suit against you in Areopagus?— Vit. Anct., c. 7.
CICERO. —When it is said, “The commonwealth of Athens is governed by the council," it is meant " of the Areopagus."—De Nat. Deor., II., 29.
JUVENAL. —You must keep my secrets as religiously as the court of Mars at Athens.— Sat. IX., v. 101.
Seeking and Retailing News
KUINOEL. —Many of the ancient writers bear witness to the garrulity, and curiosity, and intemperate desire of novelty, among the Athenians, by which they inquired respecting all things, even those in which they had no interest, whether of a public or private nature.—In loco.
DEMOSTHENES. —Is it your sole ambition to wander through the public places, each inquiring of the other, “What new advices?"—Demosth. Phil., I.
THEOPHRASTUS.—The Athenian lover of the marvelous greets his acquaintance with, Whence came you? What say you? Have you any fresh news?—Truly theirs seems to me a most wearisome mode of life, passing entire days, as they do, in running from shop to shop, from the portico to the forum, with no other business than to promulgate idle tales, by which to afflict the ears of all they meet,— Charact., XXIV.
PLUTARCH.—These busy-bodies intrude themselves into the high courts of justice, the tribunals, the market-places, and public assemblies; What news? saith one of them; How now?—De Curios., c. 8.
Altar to the Unknown God
LUCIAN. —I swear by the unknown God at Athens.—Philop., c. 13.
IDEM. —We have found out the unknown God at Athens, and worshipped him with our hands stretched up to heaven.—Philop., c. 29.
PHILOSTRATUS. —And this at Athens, where there are even altars to the unknown God.— Vita Apollo, VI., 3.
PAUSANIAS. —At Athens, there are altars of gods which are called the unknown ones.— In Attic., c. I.
God Not Confined to Temples
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Close to the spot where Paul stood was the Temple Mars. The Sanctuary of the Eumenides was immediately below him. The Parthenon of Minerva was facing him above. Their presence seemed to challenge the assertion in which he declared here, that " in TEMPLES made with hands the Deity does not dwell."—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, I., 376.
God in Need of Nothing
he giveth to all life, and breath, and all things.
EURIPIDES. —The Deity, if he be truly deity, lacks nothing.—Her. fur., v. 1345.
PLUTARCH. —God is absolutely exempt from wants.—Comp. Arist. c. Caton, C. 4.
All Made of One Blood
CICERO.—Originally, mankind were one harmonious family. But they, through their depravity, disagreed and quarreled, not recollecting that they are all consanguineous and akin, and equally subject to the same paternal providence. —De Leg., I fragm.
A. VON HUMBOLDT.—The different races of men are forms of one sole species; they are not different species of a genus.—Cosmos.
PROF. T. H. HUXLEY, F. R. S.—I am one of those who believe that, at present, there is no evidence whatever for saying, that mankind sprang originally from any more than a single pair; I must say, that I cannot see any good ground whatever, or even any tenable sort of evidence, for believing that there is more than' one species of man.—Origin of Species, p. 113.
DR. CHARLES DARWIN.—I have no doubt that all the races of man are descended from a single primitive stock.—Desc. of Man, I., 220.
God the Cause and Ground of All Existence
ARISTOTLE.—The principle of life is inherent in the Deity: for the energy or active exercise of mind constitutes life, and God constitutes this energy; and essential energy belongs to God as his best and everlasting life.—Metaph. XI., 8.
R. JOHN YOUNG.—The Eternal One, alone, is self-existent. The reason, the ground of the existence of the universe, of every living being, of every single atom: at every moment, is not in itself, but wholly and only in the will and power of the Creator. It is nothing, has no meaning, no reality, no being, except in Him. Underneath it and in it, sustaining it, entirely causing it, are the Almighty Will and the Almighty Power. Let these be withdrawn for a moment, let them only not be, that is, let there be no present Divine volition, and no present exertion of Divine power, and that moment it is nothing, for the sole ground of its being is gone.—Creator and Creation, p. 58.
Man the Offspring of God
As certain also of your own poets have said, For we are all his offspring.
ARATUS.—
Let us begin from Jove. Let every mortal raise
His grateful voice to tune Jove's endless praise.
Jove fills the heaven, the earth, the sea, the air:
We feel his spirit moving here, and everywhere.
And we his offspring are.
—Phœn., v. I.
CLEANTHES.—
Most glorious of immortals, Thou many-named
Always almighty, prime Ruler of nature,
Governing all by law, Jove, hail!
For mortals all, Thee to address is meet;
For we are thy offspring.
—Hymn in Joy.
Idols No Similitude of God
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—On Mars Hill, the Apostle was surrounded by sculpture as well as by temples. In front of him, towering from its pedestal upon the rock of the, Acropolis, was the bronze Colossus of Minerva, armed with spear and shield and helmet, as the champion of Athens. Standing almost beneath its shade, he pronounced that the Deity was not to be likened either to that, the work of Phidias, or to other forms in gold, silver, or stone, graven by art, or man's device, which peopled the scene before him.—Life of St. Paul,' I., 376.
SENECA.—From any obscure corner of the world you may rise to heaven. Rise then, and show yourself worthy of the Deity; a god not made of gold or silver; for of such materials it is indeed impossible to form a likeness of God. —Epist., 31.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—God, in his providence, has preserved to us, in fullest profusion, the literature which unfolds to us all the life of the Athenian people, in its glory and its shame; and he has ordained that one conspicuous passage in the Holy Volume should be the speech, in which his servant addressed that people as ignorant idolaters, called them to repentance and warned them of judgment. And it can hardly be deemed profane if we trace to the same Divine Providence the preservation of the very imagery which surrounded the speaker—not only the sea, and the mountains, and the sky, which change not with the decay of nations—but even the very temples, which remain, after wars and `revolutions, on their ancient pedestals in astonishing perfection. We are thus provided with a poetic and yet a truthful commentary on the words that were spoken once for all at Athens; and art and nature have been commissioned from above to enframe the portrait of that Apostle, who stands forever on the Areopagus as the teacher of the Gentiles.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, I., 381.
Corinth
DR. ADAM CLARKE.—Corinth was about forty-six miles east of Athens, situated on the isthmus that connects Peloponnesus to Attica; and was the capital of all Achaia. It was most advantageously situated for trade; for by its two ports, the Lecheum and Cenchrea, it commanded the commerce both of the Ionian and Ægean Seas. It was destroyed by the Romans under Mummius, about 146 B.C.; but was rebuilt by Julius Caesar, and became one of the most considerable cities of Greece.—Note, In loco.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Corinth, in the time of Paul, was a large mercantile city, in immediate connection with Rome and the West of the Mediterranean, with Thessalonica and Ephesus in the Ægean, and with Antioch and Alexandria in the East.—Life of St. Paul, I., 385.
IDEM.—Corinth still exists, on the old site, and bearing the old name; but is now shrunk to a wretched village. Two relics of Roman-work are still to be seen, one a heap of brick-work which may have been part of the baths erected by Hadrian; the other the remains of an amphitheater with subterranean arrangements for gladiators. Far more interesting are the ruins of the ancient Greek temple—the old columns which have looked down on the rise, prosperity and the desolation of three successive Corinths. The fountain of Peirene, "full of sweet and clear water," as it is described by Strabo, is still to be seen in the Acrocorinthus. The scene of the Isthmean games also, from which St. Paul borrows some of his most striking imagery, may yet be traced; to the south are the remains of the Stadium, where the foot-races were run, and to the east are those of the theatre the arena of the pugilistic contests.—Smith's Dict. of the Bible, p. 494
The Jews Banished From Rome
SUETONIUS.—Claudius banished from Rome all the Jews, who were continually making disturbances at the instigation of one Chrestus.—Claud, c. 25.
Tentmakers
MAIMONIDES.—The wise generally practice some of the arts, lest they should be dependent on the charity of others.—Tract Talmud Tora, c. I., § 9.
Gallio
REV. ALBERT BARNES.—After the Romans had conquered Greece, they reduced it to two provinces, Macedonia and Achaia, which were each governed by a proconsul. Gallio was the brother of the celebrated philosopher Seneca, and was made proconsul of Achaia A. D. 53. He is said to have been of a remarkably mild and amiable disposition.—Note, In loco.
TACITUS.—Mella, brother to Gallio and Seneca.—Ann., XVI., 17.
PLINY.—Annæus Gallio received great benefit from a sea voyage at the close of his consulship.— Hist. Nat., XXXI., 6.
SENECA.—Of Gallio I may say, no mortal was ever so mild to any one, as he was to all; and in him there was such a natural power of goodness that there was no semblance of art or dissimulation.— Prœf. Quest. Natu", 4.
PROF. H. B. HACKETT, LL. D.—It is worth observing as a mark of Luke's accuracy that he mentions Gallio as Anthypateyontos, "Proconsul," in the reign of Claudius; for under the preceding emperors, Tiberius and Caligula, Achaia was an imperial province, and the title of the governor would have been Proprætor.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 863.
Cenchrea
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Cenchrea was the eastern harbor of Corinth, and distant from it about nine miles. Pausanias (ii: 3) describes the road as having tombs and a grove of cypresses by the wayside. The modern village on the site retains the ancient name. Some traces of the moles of the port are still visible. A coin has been found which exhibits the port exactly as it is described by Pausanias, with a temple at the extremity of each mole, and a statue of Neptune on a rock between them.— Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 402.
The Voyage from Corinth to Ephesus
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—No voyage across the Ægean was more frequently made than that between Corinth and Ephesus. They were the capitals of two flourishing and peaceful provinces of Achaia and Asia, which were to each other as Liverpool and New York. Cicero says that, on his eastward passage, he spent fifteen days, and on his return thirteen days. With favorable wind, the voyage could be accomplished in shorter time.—Life and Epistles of St. Paul, I., 423.
Alexandria
PROF. B. Foss WESTCOTT, M. A.—Alexandria was a flourishing commercial city of Egypt, founded by Alexander the Great, B. c. 332. The population was mixed from the first. The three regions into which the city was divided corresponded to the three chief classes of its inhabitants, Jews, Greeks and Egyptians. According to Josephus, “the Jews obtained equal privileges with the Macedonians."— Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 62.
Ephesus
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Ephesus was an illustrious city in the district of Ionia, at the mouth of the river Cayster. All the cities of Ionia were remarkably well situated for the growth of commercial prosperity, and none 'more so than Ephesus. With a fertile neighborhood and an excellent climate, it was also most conveniently placed for traffic with all the neighboring parts of the Levant. In the time of Augustus it was the great emporium of all the regions of Asia within the Taurus. Its harbor, at the mouth of the Cayster, was elaborately constructed. Two great roads, in the Roman times, led eastward from Ephesus: one through the passes of Tmolus to Sardis, and thence to Galatia and the northeast; the other round the extremity of Pactyas to Magnesia, and so up the valley of the Maeander to Iconium, whence the communication was direct to the Euphrates and to the Syrian Antioch. There were also coast roads leading northward to Smyma, and southward to Miletus. By the latter of these it is probable that the Ephesian elders traveled, when summoned to meet Paul at the latter city. Part of the pavement of the Sardian road has been noticed by travelers under the cliffs of Gallesus.— Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 747.
Exorcists
Acts 19:1313Then certain of the vagabond Jews, exorcists, took upon them to call over them which had evil spirits the name of the Lord Jesus, saying, We adjure you by Jesus whom Paul preacheth. (Acts 19:13).—Then certain of the vagabond Jews, exorcists, took upon them to call over them which had evil spirits, the name of the Lord Jesus, saying, We adjure you, etc.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—By all ancient testimony, Jewish, Christian and Heathen, there were a great number of such vagrant pretenders, who went about and obtained gainful employment. Among the Jews themselves there was indeed a strong partiality for the arts of magic and superstition.— Pict. Bible, In loco.
Ephesian Books
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The worship of Diana and the practice of magic were closely connected together. Eustathius says, that the mysterious symbols, called “Ephesian Letters," were engraved on the crown, the girdle, and the feet of the goddess. These Ephesian Letters, or monograms, have been compared to the Runic characters of the North. When pronounced, they were regarded as a charm; and were directed to be used, especially by those who were in the power of evil spirits. When written, they were carried about as amulets. Curious stories are told of their influence. Cœsus is related to have repeated the mystic syllables when on his funeral pile; and an Ephesian wrestler is said to have always struggled successfully against an antagonist from Miletus until he lost the scroll, which before had been like a talisman. The study of these symbols was an elaborate science: and books, both numerous and costly, were compiled by its professors.—Life and Epistles of St. Paul, II., p. 21
MENANDER.—Such an one walks with the bridegroom and his bride, speaking to them the Ephesian Charms.—Apud Suid.
PLUTARCH.—The magicians compel those who are possessed with a demon to recite and pronounce the Ephesian Letters, in a certain order, by themselves.— Sympos., 7.
CLEMENS ALEXANDRINUS.—Androcydes, a Pythagorean, says that the Letters which are called Ephesian are symbols.—Strom., 2.
Shrines of Diana
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—One of the idolatrous customs of the ancient world was the use of portable images or shrines, which were little models of the more celebrated objects of devotion. They were carried in processions, on journeys and military expeditions, and sometimes set up as household gods in private houses. Pliny says that this was the case with the Temple of the Cnidian Venus; and other heathen writers make allusion to the “shrines " of the Ephesian Diana, which are mentioned in the Acts. The material might be wood, or gold, or silver. Few of those who came to Ephesus would willingly go away without a memorial of the goddess and a model of her temple. We find the image of the Ephesian Diana on the coins of a great number of other cities and communities, e. g., Hierapolis, Mitylene, Perga, Samos, Marseilles, etc., bearing testimony to the notoriety of her worship.—Life and Epistles of St. Paul, II., 77.
Images No Gods
PLUTARCH.—The Greeks were accustomed to speak of the statues of brass and stone, or painted figures, not as images made in honor of the gods, but as the gods themselves.—Isid. et Osirid., c. 71.
LIVY.—The Ambracians complained that their temples were despoiled of their ornaments, and the images of their gods, nay, the gods themselves torn from their mansions and carried away.— Liv., lib. xxxviii., c. 43.
HORACE.—The wife and husband are turned out, bearing in their bosoms their paternal gods.— Hor., lib. ii., carm. 18.
Temple of Diana
PLINY.—The most wonderful monument of Grecian magnificence, and one that merits our genuine admiration, is the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, which took one hundred and twenty years in building, a work in which all Asia joined. It was 425 feet in length, and 220 in breadth, and the columns were sixty feet high. The number of columns was 127, each of them the gift of a king; and thirty-six of them were enriched with ornament and color. The folding-doors were of cypress-wood; the part which was not open to the sky was roofed over with cedar; and the staircase was formed of the wood of one single vine from the island of Cyprus. The value and fame of the temple were enhanced by its being the treasury, in which a large portion of the wealth of Western Asia was stored up.—See Hist. Nat., lib. xxxvi., 21; xxxiv., 7; xvi., 79; xiv., 2.
LIVY.—The Temple of Diana was universally celebrated.—Liv., lib i., c. 45.
The Theater
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The site of Ephesus has been visited and examined by many travelers during the last 200 years. The whole place is now utterly desolate, with the exception of the small Turkish village at Ayasaluk. It is satisfactory, however, that the position of the Theater on Mount Prion is absolutely certain. It must have been one of the largest in the world.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 750.
FELLOWS.—Of the site of the theater, the scene of the tumult raised by Demetrius, there can be no doubt, its ruins being a wreck of immense grandeur. I think it must have been larger than the one at Miletus, and that exceeds any I have elsewhere seen in scale, although not in ornament. Its form alone can now be spoken of, for every seat is removed, and the proscenium is a hill of ruins.—Asia Minor, p. 274.
Chief of Asia
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—"Chief of Asia," in the original, Asiarchs.
These were officers appointed to preside over the games had in connection with the festivals of Diana. We find similar titles in use in the neighboring provinces, and read, in books or on inscriptions, and coins, of Bithyniarchs, Galatarchs, Lyciarchs, and Syriarchs. Those who held this office at the famous games of Asia and Ephesus were men of high distinction and great wealth, and might literally be called " the chief of Asia."—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., P. 83.
STRABO.—Tralles is as well peopled as any of the cities of Asia, and its inhabitants are wealthy: some of them constantly occupy chief stations in the province, and are called Asiarchs.—Strabo, XIV., I.
The Town-Clerk
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Like other free cities, Ephesus had its magistrates: one of these was that officer who is described as "town-clerk " in the authorized version of the Bible. From the parallel case of Athens, and from the Ephesian records themselves, it appears that he was a magistrate of great authority, in a high and very public position. He had to do with state-papers; he was keeper of the archives, etc. No magistrate was more before the public at Ephesus. His very aspect was familiar to all the citizens; and no one was so likely to be able to calm and disperse an excited multitude.— Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., 8I.
What man is there that knoweth not how that the city of the Ephesians is a worshipper of the great goddess Diana.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—"A worshipper "—Greek, Neocoros, of which the literal signification is Temple-sweeper. This originally was an expression of humility, and applied to the lowest menials engaged in the care of the sacred edifice; but afterward became a title of the highest honor, and was eagerly appropriated by the most famous cities. This was the case with Ephesus in reference to her national goddess. The city was personified as Diana's devotee. The title Neocoros was boastfully exhibited on the current coins. Even the free people of Ephesus was sometimes named Neocoros. Thus the “town-clerk " could with good reason begin his speech by the question, "What man is there that knows not that the city of the Ephesians is neocoros of the great goddess Diana," etc.— Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., 79.
The image which fell down from Jupiter.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—If the Temple of Diana at Ephesus was magnificent, the image enshrined within the sumptuous enclosure was primitive and rude—little more or better than a shapeless block of wood. Yet, rude as the image was, it was the object of the utmost veneration. Like the Palladium of Troy—like the most ancient Minerva of the Athenian Acropolis—like the Paphian Venus or Cybele of Pessinus—like the Ceres in Sicily mentioned by Cicero-it was believed to have fallen down from the sky.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., 77.
EURIPIDES.—In the Tauric territory Diana possesses altars, and there is the image of the goddess, which, they say, fell down from heaven.—Iph. in Taur., v. 86.
DR. ADAM CLARKE.—One of the Roman Laws made the raising of such commotions a capital offense:—" He who raises a mob shall forfeit his life."—Comment., In loco.
Troas
See chap. xvi: v. 8.
Assos
Acts 20:13, 1413And we went before to ship, and sailed unto Assos, there intending to take in Paul: for so had he appointed, minding himself to go afoot. 14And when he met with us at Assos, we took him in, and came to Mitylene. (Acts 20:13‑14).—And we went before to ship, and sailed unto Assos, there intending to take in Paul: for so had he appointed, minding himself to go afoot. And when he met with us at Assos, we took him in, and came to Mitylene.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Assos was a town and seaport of the province of Asia, in the district anciently called Mysia. It was situated on the northern shore of the gulf of Adramyttium, and was only about seven miles from the opposite coast of Lesbos. A good Roman road, connecting the towns of the central parts of the province with Troas, passed through Assos, the distance between the two latter places being about twenty miles. These geographical points illustrate St. Paul's rapid passage through the town, as mentioned in Acts 20:13, 1413And we went before to ship, and sailed unto Assos, there intending to take in Paul: for so had he appointed, minding himself to go afoot. 14And when he met with us at Assos, we took him in, and came to Mitylene. (Acts 20:13‑14). The ship in which he was to accomplish his voyage from Troas to Ptolemais went round Cape Lectum, while he took the much shorter journey by land. Thus he was able to join the ship without difficulty, and in sufficient time for her to anchor off. Mitylene at the close of the day on which Troas had been left.—Smith's. Dict. of the Bible, p. 184.
Mitylene, Chios, Etc
DR. JOHN KITTO.—Mitylene was the chief town of the island of Lesbos. Chios was a small island to the south of Lesbos; it was a very rich and beautiful island. It is still called Khio. Samos was another island, about eighty miles in circumference, and within six miles of the Ionian coast: Pythagoras was a native of this isle, and Lycurgus died in it. Trogillium was a promontory opposite Samos. Miletus was a seaport of Caria, thirty miles south of Ephesus; it was the birth-place of Thales, one of the seven sages.—Pict. Bible, In loco.
Paul's Devotion to Christ
GIBBON.—The ancient Christians were animated by a contempt for their present existence, and by a just confidence of immortality, of which the doubtful and imperfect faith of modern ages cannot give us any adequate notion.—Decline and Fall, chap. xv.
More Blessed to Give Than to Receive
ARISTOTLE.—It is more the province of virtue to benefit than to be benefited. —Eth., IV., 1.
The Course of the Ship
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—It is quite clear, from St. Luke's mode of expression, that the vessel sailed from Miletus on the day of the interview. With a fair wind she would easily run down to Coos in the course of the same afternoon. The distance is about forty nautical miles; the direction is due south. Coos is an island about twenty-three miles in length, separated by a narrow channel from the mainland. On leaving Cobs the vessel would have to proceed through the channel which lies between the southern shore of the island and that tongue of the mainland which terminates in the Point of Cnidus. If the wind continued in the northwest, the vessel would be able to hold a straight course from Coos to Cape Crio, and after rounding the point she would run clear before the wind all the way to Rhodes. No view in the Levant is more celebrated than that from Rhodes towards the opposite shore of Asia Minor. Patara was a Lycian seaport, ruins of which still remain to show that it was once a place of some magnitude and splendor.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., p. 219-225.
From Patara to Tyre
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The distance between Patara and Tyre is 340 geographical miles, which, with the favorable winds of the season, might easily have been accomplished in forty-eight hours. So much has been written concerning the situation, the past history, and the present condition of Tyre, that these subjects are familiar to every reader, and it is unnecessary to dwell upon them.— Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., p. 227.
Ptolemais
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Ptolemais was the intermediate stage between Tyre and Caesarea. It had recently been made a Roman colony by the emperor Claudius. It shared with Tyre and Sidon, Antioch and Caesarea, the trade of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. With a fair wind, a short day's voyage separates it from Tyre. From Ptolemais to Cesarea, the distance was somewhat over thirty miles, a day's journey by land.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, p. 231.
Review of the Whole Journey
Acts 21:1515And after those days we took up our carriages, and went up to Jerusalem. (Acts 21:15).—And after those days we took up our carriages, and went up to Jerusalem. DR. JOHN ' SAUL HOWSON.—Thus we have accompanied St. Paul on his last recorded journey to Jerusalem. It was a journey full of incident; and it is related more minutely than any other portion of his travels. We know all the places by which he passed, or at which he stayed; and we are able to connect them all with familiar recollections of history. We know, too, all the aspect of the scenery. He sailed along those coasts of western Asia, and among those famous islands, the beauty of which is proverbial. The very time of the year is known to us. It was when the advancing season was clothing every low shore, and the edge of every broken cliff, with a beautiful and refreshing verdure; when the winter storms had ceased to be dangerous, and the small vessels could ply safely in shade and sunshine between neighboring ports. Even the state of the weather and the direction of the wind are known. We can point to the places on the map were the vessel anchored for the night; and trace across the chart the track that was followed, when the moon was full.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., 235.
Paul Ready to Die for Christ
LUCIAN.—These poor people (the Christians) have taken it into their heads that they shall, body and soul, be immortal, and live to all eternity; thence it is that they contemn death, and that many of them run violently into his clutches.—De Mort. Pereg., C. 13.
Gentiles Excluded From the Holy Place
Acts 21:2828Crying out, Men of Israel, help: This is the man, that teacheth all men every where against the people, and the law, and this place: and further brought Greeks also into the temple, and hath polluted this holy place. (Acts 21:28).—Men of Israel, help: This is the man that teacheth all men everywhere against the people, and the law, and this place: and further brought Greeks also into the temple, and hath polluted this holy place.
JOSEPHUS. —When you go through these first cloisters unto the second court of the temple, there was a partition made of stone all round, whose height was three -cubits; its construction was very elegant: upon it stood pillars, at equal distances from one another, declaring the law of purity, some in Greek and some in Roman letters, That no Foreigner should go within that sanctuary; for that second court of the temple was called the Sanctuary, and was ascended to by fourteen steps from the first court.— Jewish Wars, b. V., c. 5, § 2.
EXPLORATION OF PALESTINE.—The inscribed stone from king Herod's temple is, perhaps, the most interesting, next to the “Moabite Stone," of all the discoveries connected with the name of M. Clermont Ganneau. Close to the Via Dolorosa lies a small cemetery. Here is a gateway. While examining the wall, step by step, M. Ganneau observed two or three Greek characters on a block forming the angle of the wall, on which was built a small arch. The characters were close to the surface of the ground. M. Ganneau proceeded to scrape away the soil, in hopes of finding them continued. More characters appeared, and when the stone was finally cleared, the discoverer had the gratification of reading the following inscription in Greek:
No stranger is to enter within the balustrade round the
Temple and enclosure. Whoever is caught will be responsible
to himself for his death, which will ensue.
We may boldly affirm that this Greek inscription is not only the most ancient, but also the most interesting, in all its bearings, which Jerusalem has yet produced.—Our Work in Palestine, Appendix, p. 340.
Tower of Antonia
JOSEPHUS.—Now, as to the tower of Antonia, it was situated at the corners of two cloisters of the court of the temple, of that on the west and that on the north: it was erected upon a rock of fifty cubits in height, and was on a great precipice. The entire structure resembled a tower. It contained also four distinct towers at its four corners; whereof the others were but 50 cubits high, whereas that which lay upon the southeast corner was 70 cubits high, that from thence the whole temple might be viewed: but in the corner where it joined to the two cloisters of the temple, it had passages down to them both, through which the guards (for there always lay in this tower a Roman legion) went several ways among the cloisters, with their arms, on the Jewish festivals in order to watch the people, that they might not there attempt to make any innovations; for the temple was a fortress that guarded the city, as was the tower of Antonia a guard to the temple; and in that tower were the guards of those three.—Jewish Wars, b. V., c. 5, § 8.
JOSEPHUS.—Where the tower of Antonia joined to the two cloisters of the temple, it had passages down to them both, through which the guards went several ways among the cloisters with their arms, on the Jewish festivals.—Ibid.
Egyptian Impostor
JOSEPHUS.—These works that were done by the robbers filled the city with all sorts of impiety.... Moreover, there came out of Egypt about this time to Jerusalem, one that said he was a prophet, and advised the multitude of the common people to go along with him to the Mount of Olives: and he would show them from thence, how at his command, the walls of Jerusalem would fall down; and he promised them that he would procure them an entrance into the city through those walls, when they were fallen down. Now, when Felix was informed of these things, he ordered his soldiers to take their weapons, and came against them with a great number of horsemen and footmen from Jerusalem„ and attacked the Egyptian, and the people that were with him. He' also slew 400 of them, and took zoo alive. But the Egyptian himself escaped out of the fight, and appeared no more.—Antq., b. xx., c. 8, § 6.
Tarsus
XENOPHON.—Tarsus, a large and rich city of Cilicia.—Anab., I., c. 2.
STRABO.—The inhabitants-of Tarsus apply to the study of philosophy and to the whole encyclical compass of learning with so much ardor, that they surpass Athens, Alexandria, and every other place which can be named where there are schools and lectures of philosophers. In other respects Tarsus is well peopled, extremely powerful, and has the character of being the capital.—Strab., lib. xiv., C. 5.
Examination by Scourging
DR. JOHN KITTO.—This method of extorting a confession was not unusual among the Romans, and was sometimes practiced by the Jews themselves. The Romans, however, could not thus treat one who enjoyed the privilege of Roman freedom; and examination by torture was therefore limited to slaves and aliens.—Pict. Bible, In loco.
CICERO.—Why has Milo emancipated his slaves? I suppose lest they should give information against him; lest they should be unable to bear pain; lest they should be compelled by torture to confess that Publius Clodius was slain by the slaves of Milo.—Pro Milon., c. 21.
Roman Citizenship
CICERO.—The Porcian law forbade a rod to be laid on the person of a Roman citizen.— Pro Rab., c. IV.
QUINTILIAN.—To bind a Roman citizen is a misdemeanor; to strike him is a crime.— Quint., lib. viii., c. 4.
Acts 22:27, 2927Then the chief captain came, and said unto him, Tell me, art thou a Roman? He said, Yea. (Acts 22:27)
29Then straightway they departed from him which should have examined him: and the chief captain also was afraid, after he knew that he was a Roman, and because he had bound him. (Acts 22:29).—Then the chief captain came, and said unto him, Tell me, art thou a Roman? He said, Yea. Then straightway they departed from him which should have examined him.
CICERO.—It is a heinous sin to bind a Roman citizen; it is wickedness to beat him.—Cont. Verres.
IDEM.—How often has this exclamation, I am a Roman citizen! brought aid and safety even among barbarians in the remotest parts of the earth.—Cont. Verres., V. 57.
Acts 22:2828And the chief captain answered, With a great sum obtained I this freedom. And Paul said, But I was free born. (Acts 22:28).—And the chief captain answered, With a great sum obtained I this freedom. And Paul said. But I was free born. And Paul said, But I was free born.
DIO CASSIUS.—The civitas or citizenship of Rome was, in the early part of the reign of Claudius, sold at a high rate, and afterwards for a mere trifle.— In Con. and Rows. Life of Paul, II., 259.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—At the period of the Apostle's birth, the Jews were unmolested at Tarsus, where his father lived, and enjoyed the rights of a Roman citizen.— Life and Epists. of St. Paul, I., 45
Smiting Upon the Mouth
MORIER.—As soon as the ambassador came, he punished the principal offenders by causing them to be beaten before him; and those who had spoken their minds too freely, he smote upon the mouth with a shoe.—Second Journey Through Persia, p. 8.
SENECA.—They are sordid, base, and like their walls adorned only externally.—De Provid., c. 6.
JOSEPHUS.—This Ananias was slain, about five years after this, during the disturbance that occurred in Jerusalem when the Sicarii had taken possession of the city. He attempted to conceal himself in an aqueduct, but was drawn forth and killed.—See Jewish Wars, 2, 17, 8.
The Conspiracy
Acts 23:52.—And when it was day, certain of the Jews banded together, and bound themselves under a curse, saying that they would neither eat nor drink till they had killed Paul.
JOSEPHUS.—This historian relates a similar conspiracy, in which ten Jews bound themselves by an oath to destroy the First Herod, because he had violated the ancient customs of the nation.
—See Antiq., 15, 8, 3,
Cæsarea
DR. JOHN KITTO.—Cæsarea was on the coast, thirty-five miles to the north of Joppa, and fifty-five miles northwest from Jerusalem.—Pict. Bible, In loco. See chap. viii., v. 40,
Felix the Governor
JOSEPHUS.—So Claudius sent Felix, the brother of Pallas, to take care of the affairs of Judea.— Antiq., b. xx., c. 7, § i.
TACITUS.—Felix was appointed procurator of Judea by the Emperor Claudius, whose freedman he was, on the banishment of Ventidius Cumanus (A. D. 53). He ruled the province in a mean and cruel and profligate manner. —Hist. V., 9, and Ann., XII., 54.
Antipatris
JOSEPHUS.—After this solemnity and these festivals were over, Herod erected another city called Caphar-saba, where he chose out a fit place, both for plenty of water and goodness of soil, where a river encompassed the city itself, and a grove of the best trees for magnitude was round about it: this he named Antipatris, from his father Antipater.—Antiq., b. xvi., c. 5, § 2.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The old name, Kefr-Saba, still lingers among the present Arabic population; and extensive patches of Roman pavement along the old road may yet be found.— Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 118
Descent From Jerusalem to Cæsarea
THE COMPILER.—From Jerusalem to Cusarea there was a literal descent of full 2,600 feet.
Felix's Term of Office
TACITUS.—Felix, for some years, governed Judea.—Ann., XII., 54.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—Felix, at this time, had been governor seven years.— Pict. Bible, In loco.
Time of Trial
Acts 24:22, 2322And when Felix heard these things, having more perfect knowledge of that way, he deferred them, and said, When Lysias the chief captain shall come down, I will know the uttermost of your matter. 23And he commanded a centurion to keep Paul, and to let him have liberty, and that he should forbid none of his acquaintance to minister or come unto him. (Acts 24:22‑23).—And when Felix heard these things... he deferred them and said, When Lysias the chief captain shall come down, I will know the uttermost of your matter. And he commanded a centurion to keep Paul, and to let him have liberty.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—When an accusation was brought against a Roman citizen, the magistrate, who had criminal jurisdiction in the case, appointed the time for hearing the cause, and detained the accused in custody during the interval. He was not bound to fix any definite time for the trial, but might defer it at his own arbitrary pleasure; and he might also commit the prisoner at his discretion to any of the several kinds of custody recognized by the Roman Law: these were, first, confinement in the public gaols, which was the most severe kind; second, free custody, which was the mildest kind; third, military custody, in which the accused person was given in charge to a soldier, who was responsible with his own life for the safe-keeping of his prisoner (Geib, p. and Tac., III., 2).—Life of St. Paul, II., 288.
Felix and Drusilla
JOSEPHUS.—And when Agrippa had received these countries as the gift of Cesar, he gave his sister Drusilla in marriage to Azizus, king of Emesa.... But as for this marriage, it was in no long time afterward dissolved upon the following occasion: while Felix was procurator of Judea, he saw this Drusilla, and fell in love with her; for she did indeed exceed all other women in beauty. And through one Simon, a magician, she was prevailed upon to transgress the law of her forefathers, and to marry Felix.— Antiq., XX., 7, I and 2.
TACITUS.—Claudius, when the Jewish kings were all deceased, or at least extremely reduced in power, gave Judea to be ruled as a province by the Roman Knights, or by his own freedmen. Antonius Felix was one of these, one who, rioting in the excesses of licentiousness and cruelty, exercised the authority of a king, with the spirit and baseness of a slave. He had received in wedlock Drusilla, granddaughter to Antony and Cleopatra; insomuch that while the emperor was Mark Antony's grandson, Felix, his manumised slave, was married to the granddaughter of that very Mark Antony.— Tac. Hist., lib. v., c. 9.
Felix Trembling
CICERO.—The power of conscience is very great, O Judges, and is of great weight on both sides: so that they fear nothing who have done no wrong, and they, on the other hand, who have done wrong think that punishment is always hanging over them.—Pro Milon., c. 23.
Felix Looking for a Bribe
DR. JOHN KITTO.—This stroke finishes the character of Felix, in exact keeping with other parts of his character.—Pict. Bible, In loco.
TACITUS.—In the practice of all kinds of lust and cruelty he exercised the power of a king with the temper of a slave.—Hist., V., 9.
Festus Appointed Governor
JOSEPHUS.—Now when Porcius Festus was sent as successor to Felix, by Nero, the principal of the Jewish inhabitants of Caesarea went up to Rome to accuse Felix.—Antiq., XX., 8, 9.
IDEM.—Now it was that Festus succeeded Felix, as procurator, and made it his business to correct those that made disturbances in the country.—Jewish Wars, II., 14, I.
HERODIAN.—Porcius Festus also was a freedman.—Herod, IV., 8, I I.
Caesar's Tribunal
DR. ADAM CLARKE.—Every procurator represented the person of the Emperor in the province over which he presided; and as the seat of government was at Caesarea; and Paul was now before the tribunal on which the Emperor's representative sat, he could say with the strictest propriety, that he stood before Caesar's judgment seat, where as a freeman of Rome, he should be tried.—Com., In loco.
Appeal to Cesar
GEIB.—This was the regular technical phrase for lodging an appeal (Plut. Cæs., c. 4). The. Roman Law did not require any written appeal to be lodged in the hands of the court; pronunciation of the single word Appello was sufficient to suspend all further proceedings.—Gesch. d. rom. Grim., p. 686.
DR. DODDRIDGE.—It is well known, that the Roman Law allowed such an appeal to every citizen, before sentence was passed, and made it highly penal for any governor, after that, to proceed to any extremities against the person making it.—Note, In loco.
TACITUS.—Nero exalted the dignity of the fathers by ordaining that whoever should appeal from the judges to the senate, should be exposed to the hazard of forfeiting the same sum of money as did those who appealed to the Emperor.—Ann., XV., 28.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—The Roman governors of provinces had a certain number of persons with them, whom they were bound to consult and advise with in every important matter, and particularly in matters of judicature. This has been proved by numerous citations from Cicero, Josephus, Dio, and Philo Judæus.— Pict. Bib., In loco.
IDEM.—The appeal being once made, the inferior magistrate or distant governor had no further power in the case; and it became highly penal for him to take any further measures in the matter, save that of sending to Rome, with all convenient speed, the person who had appealed to the tribunal of the Emperor. —Pict. Bib., In loco.
Agrippa and Bernice
PROF. BROOKE Foss WESTCOTT, M. A.—This Agrippa was the son of Herod Agrippa I. (mentioned in Acts 12) At the time of the death of his father, A. D. 44, he was at Rome, and his youth (he was seventeen years old) prevented Claudius from carrying out his first intention of appointing him his father's successor (Jos., Ant., 19, 9, I and 2). Not long afterward, however, the Emperor gave him (A. D. 50) the kingdom of Chalcis, which had belonged to his uncle; and then transferred him, A. D. 52, to the tetrarchies formerly held by Philip and Lysanias (Jos. Ant., 20, 6, I), with the title of king. The relation in which he stood to his sister Bernice was the cause of grave suspicion (Jos. Ant., 20, 6, 3), which was noticed by Juvenal. In the last Roman War Agrippa took part with the Romans, and after the fall of Jerusalem retired with Bernice to Rome, where he died.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 1053.
TACITUS. —Queen Bernice, then in her full bloom of youth and beauty, was a great favorite even with Vespasian, old as he was, for her liberality and magnificent gifts.—Hist., II., 81.
SUETONIUS. —Queen Bernice received from Titus, as was supposed, an offer of marriage, but when the people publicly expressed an unfavorable opinion of him and said that he would prove another Nero, he sent away Bernice from the city, much against the inclinations of both of them.—Tit., c. 7.
JUVENAL.—
That far-famed gem which Bernice wore,
The hire of incest, and thence valued more;
A brother's present in that barbarous state
Where kings the Sabbath barefoot celebrate.
—Sat., VI., v. 156.
No Man Condemned Unheard
PHILO.—The Roman Prefects yielded themselves to be the common judges, hearing equally the accusers and defendants, condemning no man unheard, prejudging no man; but judging without favor or enmity, according to the nature of the case.—De’Prœsid. Rom.
APPIAN.—It is not their custom to condemn men before they have been heard.—Hist. Roman.
TACITUS.—A defendant is not to be prohibited from adducing all things, by which his innocence may be established.—Ann. II.
LUCIAN. —It would be furnishing our calumniator with a pretext for reviling us if we should condemn a man without having previously heard him in his own vindication. —Piscat., c. 10.
The Charge Sent to Cæsar
Acts 25:2626Of whom I have no certain thing to write unto my lord. Wherefore I have brought him forth before you, and specially before thee, O king Agrippa, that, after examination had, I might have somewhat to write. (Acts 25:26).—Of whom I have no certain thing to write unto my lord. PRESIDENT T. D. WOOLSEY, D. D., LL. D.—An appeal from a decision in a province, when lowed, was authenticated by apostoli or &era dimissoriœ, which contained a notice of the appeal to the higher court, and were accompanied by the necessary documents, evidence, etc.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 129.
IDEM.—Could Festus, in the reign of Nero, call the Emperor his lord in accordance with the Roman usage? A free Roman under the republic never called anyone his “lord," kurios or dominus. That the term was applied to the emperor at this period we have clear evidence. Augustus rebuked the use of the title, but could not repress it, nor could Tiberius prevent its application to himself. Herod Agrippa addressed the emperor under this name. Afterward the use of it became much more frequent. The letters of Pliny to Trajan, and those of Fronto to Marcus Aurelius, begin with Domino meo. And Nero was so called. These remarks serve to show the wonderful accuracy of Luke in the Acts, of which accuracy all new study is constantly furnishing additional proof.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 818.
Paul Delivered to a Centurion
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The sending of state prisoners to Rome from various parts of the empire was an event of frequent occurrence. Thus we are told by Josephus (Vita, c. 3), that Felix, “for some slight offense, bound and sent to Rome several priests of his acquaintance, honorable and good men, to answer for themselves to Caesar." Such groups must often have left Caesarea, and other Eastern ports, in merchant vessels bound for the West.—Life of St. Paul, II., 309.
A centurion of Augustus' band.
DR. ADAM CLARKE.—Lipsius has found the name of this cohort on an ancient, marble; see Lips., in Tacit. Hist., lib. ii. The same cohort is mentioned by Suetonius, in his Life of Nero, 20.—Com. In loco.
The Coasts of Asia
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Adramyttium was a seaport in the province of Asia, or, as it was sometimes called, Mysia. It gave, and still gives its name to a deep gulf on this coast, opposite to the opening of which is the island of Lesbos. Ships of Adramyttium must have been frequent on this coast, for it was a place of considerable traffic. It lay on the great Roman road between Assos, Troas, and the Hellespont on one side, and Pergamos, Ephesus and Miletus on the other, and was connected by similar roads with the interior of the country. In the time of St. Paul Pliny mentions it as a Roman assize-town. The modern Adramyti is a poor village; but it is still a place of some trade and ship-building.-Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 35.
Meaning to sail by the coasts of Asia.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—This is to be accounted for, perhaps, by the reflection that the Mariner's Compass was unknown at that day; whence all voyages were, as far as possible, performed by creeping along the coasts; and that it was considered a matter of great peril and enterprise, whenever accident compelled or circumstances rendered it requisite to put forth to sea.—Pict. Bible, In loco.
Sidon
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The passage from Cæsarea to Sidon is 67 miles, a distance easily' accomplished, under favorable circumstances, in less than twenty-four hours.—Life of St. Paul, II., 312.
Course of the Voyage
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—On going to sea from Sidon, the wind was unfavorable-blowing from the westward. The direct course from Sidon to "the coasts of Asia" would have been to the southward of Cyprus; but, as Luke relates, “they sailed under the lee of Cyprus, because the winds were contrary "— that is, they sailed to the northeast and north of the island. The reason why this course was taken will be easily understood by those who have navigated those seas in modern times. By standing to the north, the vessel would fall in with the current which sets in a northwesterly direction past the eastern extremity of Cyprus, and then westerly along the southern coast of Asia Minor, till it is lost at the opening of the Archipelago. And besides this, as the land was neared, the wind would draw off the shore, and the water would be smoother; and both these advantages would aid the progress of the vessel.— Life of Paul, II., 313.
CAPTAIN BEAUFORT.—From Syria to the Archipelago there is a constant current to the westward, slightly felt at sea, but very perceptible near the shore, along this part of which it runs with considerable but irregular velocity: between Adratchan Cape and the small adjacent island we found it one day almost three miles an hour.—Karamania, p. 41.
Myra
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The situation of Myra was at the opening of a long and wonderful gorge, which conducts the traveler from the interior of the mountain-region of Lycia to the sea. A wide space of plain intervened between the city and the port.—Life of St. Paul, II., 315.
IDEM. —Myra is remarkable still for its remains of various periods of history. The tombs, enriched with ornaments, and many of them having inscriptions in the ancient Lycian characters, show that it must have been wealthy in ancient times. Its enormous theater attests its considerable population in what may be called its Greek age. In the deep gorge which leads into the mountains is a large Byzantine church, a relic of the Christianity which may have begun with St. Paul's visit.—Smith's Bible Dict., p. 2044.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The port of Myra was one of the many excellent harbors which abound in the southwestern part of Asia Minor. From this circumstance, and from the fact that the coast is high and visible to a great distance,—in addition to the local advantages mentioned before, the westerly current and the off-shore wind,—it was common for ships bound from Egypt to the westward to be found in this neighborhood when the winds were contrary. It was therefore a natural occurrence, and one which could have caused no surprise, when the centurion met in the harbor at Myra with an Alexandrian corn-ship on her voyage to Italy.—Life of St. Paul, II., 316.
Sailing Slowly by Cnidus, Crete, Etc.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON —Since the distance from Myra to Cnidus is only 130 miles, it is certain that they must have sailed " slowly." The delay was occasioned by contrary winds. At this point they lost the advantages of a favoring current, a weather shore, and smooth water, and were met by all the force of the sea from the westward: and it was judged the most prudent course, instead of contending with a head sea and contrary winds, to run down to the southward, and, after rounding Cape Salmone, the easternmost point of Crete, to pursue the voyage under the lee of that island.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., 317.
SIR C. PENROSE.—" Sailed slowly many days "—from the light and baffling winds, usual in those seas and at that season.—MS.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—" Cnidus."—This city was situated on a peninsula of the same name, opposite Rhodes. The peninsula consists of high mountains, sloping steeply upwards from the port, but to the west presenting a perpendicular face of rock from 100 to 300 feet high, utterly inaccessible to friend or enemy. The town of Cnidus stood at the extremity of this peninsula, and was spread over the ascent of a high mountain rising gradually from the sea. It had three fine ports, sheltered by a peninsula and divided by an isthmus.—Pict. Bib. In loco.
BEAUFORT.—Few places bear more incontestable proofs of former magnificence and fewer still of the ruffian industry of their destroyers, than Cnidus. The whole area of the city is one promiscuous mass of ruins; among which may be traced streets and gateways, porticos and theaters. The smallest harbor has a narrow entrance between high piers, and was evidently the closed basin for triremes, which Strabo mentions. The southern harbor is formed by two transverse moles; these noble works were carried into the sea to the depth of nearly a hundred feet; one of them is almost perfect; the other, which is more exposed to the southwest swell, can only be seen under water.—Karamania, p. 81, etc.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—" Crete," now, called Candia, is a large island fronting the Ægean Sea. It is a hundred and sixty miles long, and in its widest parts thirty-five miles broad. The soil is rich and exceedingly fruitful. It was very populous, and anciently had a hundred cities, from which it received the name of Hecatompolis.—Pict. Bib. In loco.
Direction of the Wind
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The statements at this particular point of St. Luke's narrative enable us to ascertain, with singular minuteness, the direction of the wind (viz., from the northwest): and it is deeply interesting to observe, how this direction, once ascertained, harmonizes all the inferences which we should naturally draw from other parts of the context.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., 319.
IDEM. —The position of Fair Havens is known. Though not mentioned by classical writers, it is still known by its old Greek name. Lasea, too, has recently been most explicitly discovered. In fact Fair Havens appears to have been practically its harbor. These places are situated four or five miles to the east of Cape Matala, which is the most conspicuous headland on the south coast of Crete, and immediately to the west of which the coast trends suddenly to the north. This last circumstance explains why the ship which conveyed St. Paul was brought to anchor in Fair Havens-beyond, its course would have been in the teeth of the wind.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 808.
Sailing Become Dangerous
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The fast of Expiation was on the tenth of Tisri, and corresponded to the close of September or the beginning of October; and is exactly the time when seafaring is pronounced to be dangerous by Greek and Roman writers. See Philo De Viert. App. II.; Hesiod, Of. et Di. 671; Aristoph. w. 709; etc.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., 321.
Phenice
DR. JOHN KITTO.—Phenice is mentioned both by Ptolemy and Strabo as a port on the southern coast of the island of Crete. It was opposite the small island of Clauda or Gaudos, and about fifty-two nautical miles to the northwest of Fair Havens.—Pict. Bib., In loco.
Euroclydon
DR. JOHN Saul. HOWSON.—The change in the fortunes of these mariners came without a moment's warning. Soon after weathering Cape Matala, and, while they were pursuing their course in full confidence, close' by the coast of Crete, a violent wind came down from the mountains, and struck the ship (seizing her, according to the Greek expression, and whirling her round), so that it was impossible for the helmsman to make her keep her course. The character of the wind is described in terms expressive of the utmost violence. It came with all the appearance of a hurricane: and the name Euroclydon, which was given to it by the sailors, indicates the commotion in the sea which presently resulted. — Life and Epistles of St. Paul, II., 325.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—" Euroclydon "—by this we may understand one of those whirlwinds or hurricanes so common in those seas at this time of the year, and which is so well known to our seamen by the name of a Levanter, and which the ancients called Typhon.—Pict. Bible, In loco.
PLINY.—The squall which is called Typhon carries along a portion of the cloud which it has broken off, rolling and turning it round, aggravating its own destruction by the weight of it, and whirling it from place to place. This is very much dreaded by sailors, and it not only breaks their sail-yards, but the vessels themselves, bending them about in various ways.—Hist. Nat., II., 49.
Clauda
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Clauda is an island about twenty miles to the southwest of Cape Matala, on the southern coast of Crete.... Running under the lee of this isle, they hoisted the boat on board, a work, in a gale, always accomplished with “difficulty."—Life and Epistles of St. Paul, II., 326-7.
Undergirding the Ship
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—In consequence of the extreme danger to which they were. exposed from leaking, it was customary to take to sea, as part of their ordinary gear, "undergirders," which were simply ropes for passing round the hull of the ship, and thus preventing the planks from starting. One of the most remarkable proofs of the truth of this statement is to be found in the inscribed marbles dug up, in the year 1834, at the Piræus, which give us an inventory of the Attic fleet in its flourishing period.— Life and Epistles of St. Paul, II., 302.
PLATO.—This light was the belt of heaven, like the undergirding of a ship, by which the whole circumference is bound together.—De Rep., X., 14.
HORACE.—
The wounded mast
And sail-yards groan beneath the southern blast,
Nor without ropes the keel can longer brave
The rushing fury of th' imperious wave.
—Hor., l. i., car. 14.
The Quicksands
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—" Quicksands "—the original for this word is The Syrtis—the broad and deep bight on the North African coast, between Carthage and Cyrene. This region was an object of peculiar dread to the ancient navigators of the Mediterranean, both on account of the drifting sands and the heat along the shore itself, and of the shallows and uncertain currents of water in the bay. Josephus relates that he was himself once wrecked in this part. Apollonius Rhodius, who was familiar with all the notions of the Alexandrian sailors, in his Argonaut, supplies illustrations of this passage in Paul's history, in more respects than one-in the sudden violence of the terrible north wind, in its long duration, and in the terror which the sailors felt of being driven into the Syrtis. There were properly two Syrtes, the eastern or larger, now called the Gulf of Sidra, and the western or smaller, now the Gulf of Cabes. It is the former to which our attention is directed in this passage of the Acts. The ship was caught by a northeasterly gale on the south coast of Crete, near Mount Ida, and was driven to the island of Clauda. This line of drift, continued, would strike the greater Syrtis: whence the natural apprehension of the sailors.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 2652.
The Wreck Foretold
REV. WILLIAM JAY, D. D.—" We must be cast on a certain island "—not a continent, but an island, and a certain island—and we must be cast upon it, that is, wrecked there; the vessel will be destroyed, though the passengers will be preserved. And so it came to pass.—Evening Exercises, Octr. 23.
Nearing Land
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—A gale of such duration, though not very frequent, is by no means unprecedented in that part of the Mediterranean, especially towards winter. The writer has heard of easterly and northeasterly gales lasting for a still longer period, both in the neighborhood of Gibraltar and to the eastward of Malta. A captain in the merchant service mentions a fruit vessel near Smyrna hindered for a fortnight from loading by a gale from the northeast. She was two days in beating up a little bay a mile deep. He adds, that such gales are prevalent there towards winter. Another case is that of a vessel bound for Odessa, which was kept three weeks at Milo with an easterly gAle. This also was late in the year (October). A naval officer writes thus: "About the same time of the year, in 1839, I left Malta for the Levant in the Hydra,' a powerful steam frigate, and encountered Euroclydon (or, as we called it, a Levanter) in full force. I think we were four days without being able to sit down at table to a meal; during which time we saw 'neither sun nor stars.' Happily she was a powerful vessel, and we forced her through it, being charged with dispatches, though with much injury to the vessel. Had we been a mere log on the water, like St. Paul's ship, we should have drifted many days."—Life and Epistles of St. Paul, II., 334.
Driven up and down in Adria.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—In the apostolic age, Adria denoted that natural division of the Mediterranean which Humboldt names the Syrtic Basin, and which had the coasts of Sicily, Italy, Greece and Africa for its boundaries. This definition is explicitly given by almost a contemporary of St. Paul, the geographer of Ptolemy, who also says that Crete is bounded on the west by Adrias. Later writers state that Malta divides the Adriatic Sea from the Tyrrhenian Sea, and the Isthmus of Corinth the Ægean from the Adriatic.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 35.
The shipmen deemed that they drew near to some country.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—There is little doubt as to what were the indications of land. The roar of breakers is a peculiar sound, which can be detected by a practiced ear, though not distinguishable from the other sounds of a storm by those who have not " their senses exercised " by experience of the sea.— Life and Epistles of St. Paul, II., 334.
Sounding
Acts 27:27-2927But when the fourteenth night was come, as we were driven up and down in Adria, about midnight the shipmen deemed that they drew near to some country; 28And sounded, and found it twenty fathoms: and when they had gone a little further, they sounded again, and found it fifteen fathoms. 29Then fearing lest we should have fallen upon rocks, they cast four anchors out of the stern, and wished for the day. (Acts 27:27‑29).—The shipmen deemed that they drew near to some country; and sounded, and found it twenty fathoms: and when they had gone a little further, they sounded again, and found it fifteen fathoms. Then fearing lest we should have fallen upon rocks, they cast four anchors out of the stern, and wished for the day.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—We have seen that when under the lee of Clauda, the direction in which the vessel was drifting was west by north, which is the exact bearing of the northern part of Malta from the south of Clauda. And we find that every succeeding indication in the narrative, not only tends to bring us to the shore of Malta, but to the very Bay (the Cala di San Paolo) which has always been the traditional scene of the wreck. In the first place we are told that they became aware of land by the presence of breakers, and yet without striking. Now an inspection of the chart will show us that a ship drifting west, by north might approach Koura point, the eastern boundary of St. Paul's Bay, without having fallen in previously with any other part of the coast: for, towards the neighborhood of Valetta, the shore trends rapidly to the southward. Again, the character of this point, as described in the Sailing Directions, is such that there must infallibly have been violent breakers upon it that night. Yet a vessel drifting west by north might pass it, within a quarter of a mile, without striking on the rocks. But what are the soundings at this point? They are now twenty fathoms. If we proceed a little further we find fifteen fathoms. It may be said that this, in itself, is nothing remarkable. But if we add, that the fifteen fathom depth is in the direction of the vessel's drift (west by north) from the twenty fathom depth, the coincidence is startling! But at this point we observe, on looking at the chart, that now there would be breakers ahead—and yet at such a distance ahead, that there would be time for the vessel to anchor, before actually striking on the rocks.
They cast four anchors out of the stern.—If they had anchored by the bow, there was good ground for apprehending that the vessel would have swung round and gone upon the rocks. They therefore let go four anchors by the stern. By this method her way would be more easily arrested, and she would be in a better position for being run ashore next day. Modern Greek vessels may still be seen anchoring by the stern in the Golden Horn at Constantinople, or on the coast. of Patmos. But the best illustration is afforded by one of the paintings of Herculaneum, which represents "a ship so strictly contemporaneous with that of St. Paul, that there is nothing impossible in the supposition, that the artist had taken his subject from that very ship, on loosing from the pier at Puteoli."—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., 341-2 and 335-6.
The Anchorage
Acts 27:39-4139And when it was day, they knew not the land: but they discovered a certain creek with a shore, into the which they were minded, if it were possible, to thrust in the ship. 40And when they had taken up the anchors, they committed themselves unto the sea, and loosed the rudder bands, and hoised up the mainsail to the wind, and made toward shore. 41And falling into a place where two seas met, they ran the ship aground; and the forepart stuck fast, and remained unmoveable, but the hinder part was broken with the violence of the waves. (Acts 27:39‑41).—And when it was day they knew not the land: hut they discovered a certain creek with a shore, into the which they were minded, if it were possible, to thrust in the ship. And when they had taken up the anchors, they committed themselves unto the sea, and loosed the rudder bands, and hoisted up the mainsail to the wind, and made toward shore. And falling into a place where two seas met, they run the ship aground.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The character of the coast on the further side of the bay is such, that though the greater part of it is fronted with mural precipices, there are one or two indentations, which exhibit the appearance of a creek with a (sandy or pebbly) shore. And again we observe that the small island of Salmonetta is so placed, that the sailors, looking from the deck when the vessel was at anchor, could not possibly be aware that it was not a continuous part of the mainland; whereas, while they were running her aground, they could not help observing the opening of the channel, which would thus appear a place between two seas, and would be more likely to attract their attention, if some current resulting from this juxtaposition of the island and the coast interfered with the accuracy of their steering. And finally, to revert to the fact of the anchors holding through the night (a result which could not confidently be predicted), we find it stated in our English " Sailing Directions," that the ground in St. Paul's Bay is so good, that, while the cables hold, there is no danger, as the anchors will never start.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., 343.
The Ship Run Ashore
SIR CHARLES PENROSE.—The mainsail being hoisted, it would press the ship further on upon the land.—MS.
JAMES SMITH, ESQ.—A careful examination of the beach revealed the fact, that the ship would strike a bottom of mud, graduating into tenacious clay, into which the fore part would fix itself, and be held fast, whilst the stern was exposed to the force of the waves.— Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, p. 104.
Melita
DR. JOHN KITTO.—Melita, as is well known, was the ancient name of Malta. This island, situated very nearly mid-way between Europe and Africa, has been reckoned sometimes as belonging to the one and sometimes to the other. It is about twenty miles long and twelve miles broad. Its ancient capital stood upon elevated ground about the center of the island. There are in this city numerous alleged memorials of St. Paul's sojourn here.—Pict. Bib., In loco.
DIODORUS SICULUS.—There are over against that part of Sicily which lies to the south, three islands at a distance in the sea, each of which has a town and safe ports for ships overtaken by tempests. The first, called Melita, is about 800 stadia from Syracuse, and has several excellent harbors. The inhabitants are very rich, inasmuch as they exercise many trades, and in particular, manufacture cloths remarkable for their softness and fineness. Their houses are large, and splendidly ornamented with projections and stucco. The island is a colony of Phoenicians, who, trading to the Western Ocean, use it as a place of refuge, because it has excellent ports, and lies in the midst of the sea.— Diod. Sic., lib. V., C. 12.
Barbarians
REV. T. S. MILLINGTON.—The inhabitants of this island are called "barbarians " in accordance with the custom of the Greeks and Romans, who called all people by that name who spoke a language different from their own.—Test of Heath., p. 555.
OVID.—Here, I am a barbarian, for no person understands me.—Tristia, v. 10.
HERODOTUS.—The Egyptians call all those barbarians who have not the same language with themselves.—Euterpe, c. 158.
STRABO.—Of the barbarians, the Persians were the best known to the Greeks, for none of the other barbarians who governed Asia ruled Greece.—Strab., XV., 3.
PAUL.—If I know not the meaning of the voice, I shall be unto him that speaketh a barbarian; and he that speaketh shall be a barbarian unto me.—I Cor. xiv: I I.
The Viper
BLOOMFIELD.—The poisonous vipers of Italy and Africa do not, like some species of harmless snakes with us, wind around a person's hand, but dart upon and bite them at once, and keep fast hold.— In loco.
DR. JOHN KITTO.—The ancients held that no murderer, however he might evade human justice, ever finally escaped the avenging justice of heaven. That serpents were often the agents of this justice was believed both by Jews and heathen. The Talmud mentions the story of a man who slew his friend, but was immediately after bitten by a serpent, and died.—Pict. Bib. In loco.
Publius
DR. ADAM CLARKE.—The term Protos, chief, used here by St. Luke, was the ancient title of the governor of this island, as is evident from an inscription found in Malta, which reads thus:
Lucius CAIUS, SON OF QUIRINUS, A ROMAN KNIGHT, CHIEF OF THE MELITESE .
This title is another proof of the accuracy of St. Luke, who uses the very epithet by which the Roman Governor of that island was distinguished.—Note, In loco.
Alexandria
Acts 28 it.—And after three months we departed in a ship of Alexandria, which had wintered in the isle, whose sign was Castor and Pollux.
PROF. B. F. WESTCOTT, M. A.—Alexandria was the Roman capital, of Egypt.
It was founded by Alexander the Great B. c. 332. Its beauty became proverbial. The climate and site are singularly healthy. The harbors formed by the island of Pharos and the headland Lochias, were safe and commodious, alike for commerce and for war, and the lake Mareotis was an inland haven for the merchandise of Egypt and India. Its importance as one of the chief corn-ports of Rome secured for it the general favor of the first emperors. The Alexandrine corn-vessels were large and handsome; and, as Josephus informs us, even Vespasian made a voyage in one of them. They generally sailed direct to Puteoli; but under stress of weather often sailed under the Asiatic coast.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 62.
Astor and Pollux
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Castor and Pollux, the Dioscuri, the twin-sons of Jupiter and Leda, They were regarded as the tutelary divinities of sailors. Hence the frequent allusions of Roman poets to these divinities in connection with navigation (see Hor., carm. I., 3, 2). Castor and Pollux were especially honored at Alexandria and the neighboring districts. In Catullus, IV., 27, we have distinct mention of a boat dedicated to them. Herodotus says (III., 37) that the Phoenicians used to place the figures of deities at the bow of their vessels. Virgil (Æn. X., 209) and Ovid (Trist. I., 10, 2) supply us with illustrations of the practice; and Cyril says that such was always the Alexandrian method of ornamenting each side of the prow.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 395.
CATULLUS.—
As when through storms the sailor long has pray'd
To Pollux now, and now for Castor's aid,
Soft breathes the favoring air and calms the sea;
Such Manlius was, such help and bliss to me.
—Catul., carm. 68.
Syracuse
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—Syracuse was in their track.—Life of P., II., 347.
CAN. J. W. BLAKESLEY, B. D.—Syracuse was a very celebrated city on the eastern coast of Sicily. The magnificence which Cicero describes as still remaining in his time, was then no doubt greatly impaired. The situation of this city rendered it a convenient place for the African corn-ships to touch at, for the harbor was an excellent one, and the fountain of Arethusa in the island furnished an unfailing supply of excellent water.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 3140.
Rhegium and Puteoli
PROF. CHARLES ANTHONY, LL. D.—Rhegium was a celebrated and flourishing city at the southern extremity of Italy, opposite the coast of Sicily. It was founded about 700 B. C. The modern name of the place is Reggio.—Classical Dictionary.
LEWIN.—" We fetched a compass "—as the wind was westerly, and they were under shelter of the high mountainous range of Ætna on their left, they were obliged to stand out to sea in order to fill their sails, and so come to Rhegium by a circuitous course. I was informed by a friend that when he made the voyage from Syracuse to Rhegium, the vessel in which he sailed took a similar circuit for a similar reason. —Quoted by Dr. Howson.
And after one day, the south wind blew, and we came the next day to Puteoli.
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The south wind would be favorable not only for carrying the ship through the Straits, but for all the remainder of the voyage. Puteoli lies nearly due north from Rhegium. The distance is about 182 miles. If we assume (in accordance with what has been proved above) that the vessel sailed at the rate of seven knots an hour, the passage would be accomplished in about twenty-six hours, which agrees perfectly with the account of St. Luke, who says that, after leaving Rhegium, they came " the next day" to Puteoli.—Life of St. Paul, II., 349.
IDEM. —Puteoli, under the early Roman emperors, was the great landing-place of travelers to Italy from the Levant, and the harbor to which the Alexandrian corn-ships brought their cargoes. It was at that period a place of very great importance. It was situated on the " Bay of Cumæ," now called the Bay of Naples. Close to it was Baiæ, one of the most fashionable of the Roman watering places. Its associations with historical personages are very numerous. Scipio sailed from hence to Spain. Cicero had a villa in the neighborhood. Here Nero planned the murder of his mother. Vespasian gave to this city peculiar privileges. And here Hadrian was buried.—The remains of Puteoli are considerable. The aqueduct, the reservoirs, portions (probably) of baths, the great amphitheater, the Temple of Serapis which affords very curious indications of changes of level in the soil, are all well worthy of notice. But our chief interest here is concentrated on the ruins of the ancient mole, which is formed of the concrete called Pozzolana, and sixteen of the piers of which still remain. No Roman harbor has left so solid a memorial of itself as this one at which St. Paul landed in Italy.—Smith's Dict. of Bible, p. 2647.
DR. J. S. HOWSON.—From its trade with Alexandria and the East, Puteoli must necessarily have contained a colony of Jews, and they must have had a close connection with the Jews of Rome.
And so we went toward Rome.—We are now about to trace the Apostle's footsteps along that road which was at once the oldest and most frequented in Italy, and which was called, in comparison with all others, the "Queen of Roads." This was the Appian Way, the most crowded approach to the metropolis of the world. The distance from Puteoli to Rome is about 125 miles.—Life and Epists. of St. Paul, II., 353-6.
Appii Forum, and the Three Taverns
ANTONINUS.—The Three Taverns was a place 33 miles distant from Rome, and Appii Forum 51 miles, both on the Appian Way.—Itinerary.
CICERO.—This epistle was dated from Appii Forum at four o'clock; I had written another, a short time before from the Three Taverns.—4d Att., lib. ii., ep. 10.
Captain of the Guard
DR. ADAM CLARKE—" Captain of the guard," stratopedarkes, literally and properly, Commander of the Camp. Tacitus (Ann., IV., 2) informs us, that in the reign of Tiberius, Sejanus, who was then Præfect of these troops, did, order to accomplish his ambitious designs, cause them to be assembled from their quarters in the city, and stationed in a fortified Camp near it; so that their commander is with peculiar propriety styled by St. Luke, the Commander of the Camp. For, the arrival of St. Paul at Rome was in the seventh year of Nero (A. D. 62); and it is certain, from Suetonius (Tibr., c. 37), that the custom of keeping the prætorian soldiers in a camp near the city was retained by the emperors succeeding Tiberius. It was customary for prisoners who were brought to Rome, to be delivered to the Commander of this Camp, who had the charge of the state prisoners (Plin., lib. x., ep. 65). The person who now had that office was the noted Afranius Burrhus, who was a principal instrument in raising Nero to the throne. He is praised by the historians for his moderation and love of justice; and his treatment of St. Paul—" suffering him to dwell by himself" —is no mean proof of this.—Com. In loco.
Paul in His Hired House
DR. JOHN SAUL HOWSON.—The Roman courts required the personal presence of the prosecutor. It would seem that, at this time, an accused person might be thus kept in prison for an indefinite period, merely by the delay of the prosecutor to proceed with his accusation. And even when the prosecutors were present, and no ground alleged for the delay of the trial, a corrupt judge might postpone it, as Felix did, for months and years, to gratify the enemies of the prisoner. And if a provincial governor, though responsible for such abuse of power to his master, might venture to act in this arbitrary manner, much more might the emperor himself, who was responsible to no man. Thus we find that Tiberius was in the habit of delaying the hearing of causes, and retaining the accused in prison unheard, merely out of procrastination (Joseph. Ant., 18, 6, 5). So that even after St. Paul's prosecutors had arrived, and though we were to suppose them anxious for the progress of the trial, it might still have been long'' delayed by the emperor's caprice. We read (Tac. Ann., XIII., 43) of an interval of twelve months permitted during Nero's reign, in the case of an accusation against Suilius, for misdemeanors committed during his government of Proconsular Asia.—Life and Epistles of St. Paul, II., 375.